Jawaharlal Nehru Technological

University Kakinada

III Year B. Tech. I Sem.

Mass Transfer Operation - I
Humidification
Presented by

Prof. K. V. Rao
Academic Advisor / Visiting Professor
School of Petroleum Courses

HUMIDIFICATION

Humidification is an interphase transfer operation that

involves vaporization of liquid form a pure liquid phase
into a gas that is practically insoluble in that liquid.

If the transfer is from gas to the liquid, it is known as

dehumidification.

As concentration gradient does not exist in the liquid

phase (Pure, single component) there is no mass transfer
resistance in this phase.

Moreover, the mass transfer is invariably accompanied by

heat transfer in these operations necessitating
consideration of both equilibrium and enthalpy
characteristics of the system in understanding and
designing of the humidification or dehumidification
operations.

Most of these operations deal with air-water mixture.

Psychrometry is the study of the properties of airwater mixtures. Atmospheric air is a mixture of dry
air and water in equilibrium.

This mixture behaves like an ideal gas since the

temperature of the dry air is usually very high
compared to its critical temperature and the partial
pressure of water is relatively low compared to its
critical pressure.

In the following definitions and subsequent

derivations the total pressure Pt is taken as 105 Pa,
which is close to the atmospheric pressure.

The molecular weights of water and air are taken as

18 and 29 respectively. The reference temperature is
chosen at 00C to calculate enthalpies of both gas and
liquid phases.

Definitions of Terms:
Absolute (Specific) Humidity: Mass of water vapor per
unit mass of dry air. (kg of water vapor per kg of dry air)
Y = 18p / [29 (Pt p)]
1
Saturation Humidity: Humidity of air in equilibrium with
water at the temperature of the air.
YS = 18ps / [29 (Pt ps)]
2
Percentage absolute (Specific) Humidity: It is the
ratio of absolute humidity to saturation humidity to
saturation humidity multiplied with 100
YP = 100 Y / YS

Can be expressed in partial pressure terms as

YP = 100 [p / (Pt p)] / [ps / (Pt ps)]
Molal Humidity: moles of water vapor per unit mole of
dry air

Y = y/ (1 y) = p /(Pt p)
Relative Humidity: Ratio of the partial pressure of water
vapor to the saturation pressure (Vapor pressure of water
6
at the temperature or air)
YR = p / Ps
The percentage relative humidity is expressed as 100 (Y R)
Humid volume: Volume of air expressed as m3 / kg of dry
7
air i.e. sum of volume of 1kg dry air and water it contains.

When R = 8314 J/ kg mole K and Pt = 105N /M2

VH = 0.08314
T (1/29 + Y /18)
Humid Heat: It is the heat capacity of air-water
mixture per kg of dry air. The heat capacity of dry
air in a temperature range, 0 1000C is
approximately equal to 1 kJ / kg K and that of
water vapor 1.88kJ/ kg K.

CH = 1.00 + 1.88 Y kJ / kg K
Enthalpy of Air: Enthalpy of 1 kg dry air +
enthalpy of water vapor Taking 00C reference 10
temperature, it can be calculated as
H = CH t+ Y (HV) kJ / kg of dry air

HV = enthalpy of vaporization of water at 00C,

kJ /kg
t = temperature of air 0C
The vapor pressure and enthalpy of vaporization
can be calculated from the following equations
11

PS (Pa) = exp [23.7093 4111 / (237.7 + t)] for 0 <

t < 57 0C
PS (Pa) = exp [23.1863 3809.4 / (226.7 + t)] for
57< t < 135 0C
(HV)t = 2501.6 2.275t 0.0018t2 kJ /kg

12
13

Adiabatic saturation temperature: Fig.1 shows an

adiabatic saturator in which air flows through a spray of
water. The entering air (unsaturated at the inlet
conditions) is cooled and becomes saturated as some
of the water vaporizes.
The walls of saturator are insulated to make the
process adiabatic. The enthalpy of inlet air is equal to
enthalpy of exit air under perfect adiabatic conditions.
It is necessary to provide makeup water to maintain
continuous recirculation of water.
The temperature of the makeup water should have the
same temperature of the water sump. When the
equilibrium is reached at steady state conditions, the
temperature of the exit air will attain the adiabatic
saturation temperature (tas), which will be equal to the
water temperature.

Air out

Air in

t1, Y1, H1

Make Up
Fig. 1 Adiabatic Saturator

Taking Tas as reference temperature, the enthalpies of

air at inlet and exit condition can be equated as
(1.00 + 1.88 Y 1) (t1 tas) + Y1 (HV)tas = (1.00 + 1.88
Y2)(tas tas) + Y2 (HV)tas
14
As Y2 = Yas, the above equation becomes, after
rearrangement
(Y1 = Yas) / (t1 tas) = (1.00 + 1.88 Y 1) / (HV)tas
= CH / (HV)tas
.

15

Wet bulb temperature: It is the non-equilibrium

steady state temperature attained at the liquid (water)
when small liquid surface comes into contact with a
large amount of gas (air) under adiabatic conditions.

Air in y,t

Air out y, t

Fig. 2 Experimental Determination of Wet blub Temperature

Fig. 2 shows dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers,

placed in an insulated duct through which air flows
continuously under turbulent conditions. The quantity of
air is large such that the humidity and temperature of
air remain constant.
A small quantity of water from the wick evaporates and
cools the wick which in turn cools the bulb of the wet
bulb thermometer.
At steady state, the latent heat of vaporization is exactly
balanced by the convective heat transfer from the air to
16
MA NA A (H
wick. It can be expressed
as V)twb = hc A (t twb)

Where

MA =
NA =
A =
HV
Hc =

Molecular weight of water

Molar flux of water k mol / m2 s
Surface area of wick, m2
= Enthalpy of vaporization at twb J / kg
Convective heat transfer coefficient, w / m2 K

The expression for molar flux of A (water) through a

stagnant B (air) can be written as
NA = ky (y yi) / (1 y)1m

17

Since y is small; yi = ywb (The interphase composition of

water vapor is equal to the composition of water
calculated at the wet bulb temperature); y = YMB / MA;
ywb = Ywb MB/MA. Then the equation 17 becomes
NA = ky (MB / MA) (Ywb Y)

18

Then
MA ky (MB / MA) (Ywb Y) (HV)twb = hc (t twb)

19

rearranging,
(Y Ywb) / (t twb) = (hc / ky MB) / (HV)twb

20

The numerator, hc / ky MB is termed as psychrometric ratio.

For air water mixture, the value is equal to CH, which is
approximately equal to 1 kJ / kg K.
This is known as Lewis relation or Lewis number. Even
though it is true that the wet bulb temperature is equal to
adiabatic saturations, it may be realized that the former is
a non equilibrium temperature and the latter is an
equilibrium temperature at steady state conditions.
In case of other gas mixture these temperatures will not be
equal.
Dew Point Temperature: It is the temperature at which a
given mixture of air and water vapor becomes saturated as
it is cooled at constant pressure and humidity.

Psychrometric (or Humidity) Chart:

The psychrometric chart is a useful tool for calculations
involving air-water system. Most of the psychrometric
properties defined and described above are shown
graphically in the chart which help solve a wide range of
problems relating to heating, cooling, humidification and
dehumidification. A typical psychrometric chart is shown
in Fig. 3.
The X-axis shown dry bulb temperature, measured as the
temperature of the humid air. The Y-axis shows the
absolute humidity. The 100% curve gives the humidity of
saturated air as a function of air temperature.
There are other curves, right side of the 100% curve,
each represents % saturation of air ranging from 80
10%. In some charts relative humidity curves are used
instead those of % saturation.
The adiabatic or wet bulb temperature lines are plotted
using equation 15 or 20 for a given constant value of
temperature.

Fig. 3:Psychrometric Chart

Specific volume line run almost vertically from the

upper left to the lower right of the chart. The
enthalpy curve runs parallel to the saturation
curve.

On some psychrometric charts, the enthalpy lines

coincide with the wet bulb or adiabatic saturation
lines.

A standard psychrometric chart is plotted for a

sea-level barometric pressure of 101.3 kpa.

The chart is used with little error for barometric

pressures ranging from 97 to 104 kPa.

High altitude analyses require a special chart

because the barometric pressure affects denisity
and therby, thermodynamic properties of air.

Applying the Chart:

To determine the humidity and wet bulb
temperature when the dry bulb temperature, t
and % saturation humidity of humid air are
given.
Fig. 4a. Illustrates the
determination
of
humidity.

Locate the dry bulb

temperatures on X
axis

Draw a vertical line

from t to the %
saturation curve to
intersect it at A.

From A, read humidity

Fig. 4b. Illustrates the

determination of wet bulb
temperature.

From point A, follow the

adiabatic
cooling
or
saturation line to the 100%
saturation
curve
to
intersect it at B.

From B, read the wet bulb

temperature vertically on X
axis.

Fig. 4c. Illustrates

determination
of
point.

the
dew

Draw horizontal line from

point A and extend it to the
100% saturation curve to

To find out the humidity and the % saturation

humidity when the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures are given.
Fig
5.
Illustrates
the
determination of humidity

Draw a vertical line to 100%

saturation line form the wet bulb
temperature twb. It intersects at S.

Locate K the intersection point of

adiabatic cooling line from S and
the vertical line drawn from X
axis at the point of dry bulb
temperature, t.

Read the value of

horizontally on Y axis.

Point K gives the % saturation

humidity. If it is not falling on any

humidity

Cooling Towers
Basically, a cooling tower is a direct contact heat
exchanger for removing waste heat from process
water.
The water to be cooled is distributed through the tower
packing material called fill, while air is blown across
or counter-currently to the flow or water.
Cooling is accomplished mainly through evaporation of
some quantity of water (up to 1% of the circulated
water for every 100F cooling).
As the evaporation process takes place, latent heat
exchange occurs (about 1000 Btu are removed per 1b
of water evaporated) reducing the water temperature.
The heat is rejected into the atmosphere through
humid air and the cooled water is returned to the
process system.

Theory
Fig. 6. Shows a schematic diagram of a cooling tower
giving the inlet and outlet conditions of air and water.
As a small portion of water evaporates, it can be
reasonably assumed that the rate of water remains
constant. ie. L1 = L2 = L. The heat capacity of water, cw,
is constant over the temperange of the cooling tower.
An enthalpy balance over differential volume, SdZ, of
the column gives
GdH = d [LCw (TW T0)]

2
1

Fig. 6: Schematic Diagram of a Cooling Tower

When the reference temperature is taken as zero and

differentiating the RHS of equation 21,
G x dH

L x Cw x dtw

Integration over the tower gives

H2 H1 = L x Cw x dtw / G

22

23

The above equation is linear and is the operating line

for the cooling tower.

The rate of sensible heat transferred from the

interface to the bulk of the gas-vapour mixture in the
differential volume is given by the expression.

G x CH x dtG = hG x aH x (tGi tG)

24

Where tGi is the temperature at the interface Incorporating

the Mass transfer coefficient for the heat transfer
coefficient by means of the Lewis relation, the above
equation can be written as
G x CH x dtG

= Ky x aH x MB x CH x (tGi tG) x SdZ

25

The rate of mass transfer in gas phase from the interface

is
26
G x dY
= Ky x aM x MA x (YAi YA) x SdZ
Since YAi YAi
MB / MA and YA YA
equation becomes in terms as humidities
G x dY

MB / MA, the

= Ky x aM x MB x (YAi YA) x SdZ

27

The equation 27 is multiplied both sides by the latent

heat of aporization, H and combining it with equation 25
gives the total heat transfer rate to the gas phase from
the interface. Assuming aH = aM = a, the rate of equation
becomes,
G x [CH dTG + dY HV] = G dH = RHS
RHS

28
Ky x a x MB x CH x (tGi tG) + HV x (YAi
YA) x S dZ

The saturation gas enthalpy at the interface and bulk

gas enthalpy interface are defined as
29
Hi = CH tGi + HV x YAi
H = CH tG + HV x YA

30

Subtracting (30) from (29)

31
Hi H = CH (tGi tG) + HV x (YAi YA)
Substuition of equation (31) for the square braketted
term in the RHS of the equation results in
G x dH = Ky x a x MB (Hi H) S dZ
32
Rearranging the equation (32) and integrating for the
height of the cooling tower, Z, assuming that G / K y am
is constant, it becomes
H2

Z G / K y aM B S dH /( H I H ) ( HTU ) G ( NTU ) G 33
H1

Where (NTU)G is known as number of individual gas

enthalpy transfers units based on gas phase and (HTU) G is
the corresponding height of an individual unit .
34
(NTU)G = dH / (Hi H)
(HTU)G = G / Ky a MB S
35
To determine the (NTU)G, the values of interfacial gas
phase enthalpies Hi and the corresponding enthalpy of
the bulk gas phase at any given cross section in the
cooling tower are necessary.
A relation between the gas phase enthalpies and the
rate of heat transfer from the gas phase to the bulk liquid
phase to the interface establishes the calculation of
enthalphies at the liquid (water) temperatures.

Thus,
L Cw dtw

= hL a (tw twi) S dZ

36

Combining equations (22), (32) and (36),

hL a (tw twi) S dZ = Ky x a x MB (Hi H) S dZ

37

Rearranging,
- hL a / Ky a MB = (Hi H) / (twi tw)

38

At the interface, twi = tGi, because the resistance to the

heat and mass transfer is negligible here. Then the
equation (38) becomes
-hL a / Ky a MB = (Hi H) / (tGi tw)
Graphical Procedure for (NTU)G

39

The determination of (NTU)G involves a two step

graphical procedure.
Step1: Evaluating a set of values of (Hi H) , in the
specified limits of operation on a plot of (H - H w)
coordinates.
Curve AB shown in fig is the saturated enthalpy
curve for air at various water temperatures in the
given range. The following equation may be used to
calculate saturation enthalpy of air: (t in oC)

H s (kJ / kg ) 4.7926 2.568t 0.02983t 2 0.0016657t 3

40

The operating line CD is drawn with a slope LC w/ G,

initially locating point C, which has the coordinates
(H1, tw1. The wet bulb temperature of the inlet air and
the temperature of water, leaving the tower may be
used to locate the point C as shown in figure.
A line with a slope - hL a / Ky a MB is plotted from an
intermediate point (H,tw) on the operating line, to
intersect the equilibrium curve. The coordinates of the
intersection represent the interface values of H i and
twi. Thus a number of values of Hi for the
corresponding values of H are obtained in between H 1
and H2.
Step 2: A plot of 1/ (Hi-H) vs H results in a curve as in
fig B. the area under the curve gives the number of
transfer units (NTU)G.

Overall Transfer Units:

Very often, it is assumed that the liquid film resistance is
negligible, making tw, twi and tGi identical. According to the
equation, - hL a / Ky a MB equals to infinity. It enables to
estimate Hi as H* which is the intersection point of vertical
line drawn from the point (H,tw) and the equilibrium
curve. Then, (H* - H) represents the overall driving force.
The overall gas enthalpy number of the transfer units
(NTU)OG can be evaluated by substituting (H* - H) for
individual driving force (Hi H). In that case, the overall
coefficient Ky replaces Ky in the equation (35) for the
41
height of overall gas enthalpy transfer unit.
(NTU)OG
= dH / (H* H)
(HTU)OG
= G / K y a MB
Then,
Z

= (NTU)OG (HTU)OG = (NTU)G (HTU)G

4
2
43

The transfer unit method, described above,

for the tower height, Z, is theoretically
sound provided appropriate values of HTU
and NTU are used. In the absence of data
on hL / ky a, the assumption of negligible
temperature gradient in the liquid phase
can be invoked to estimate (NTU)OG, and is
made equal to (NTU)G in the design
calculations.

Fig. 7: Determination of Transfer Units, NTUG

INDUSTRIAL COOLING TOWERS

COOLING TOWERS
WHAT IS COOLING TOWER?
A cooling tower is an equipment used to reduce the
temperature of a water stream by extracting heat
from water and emitting it to the atmosphere.
Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby
some of the water is evaporated into a moving air
stream and subsequently discharged into the
atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water
is cooled down significantly.

Components of a cooling tower

The basic components of a cooling tower include the
frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin, drift eliminators,
air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.
Frame and casing. Most towers have structural frames
that support the exterior enclosures (casings), motors,
fans, and other components. With some smaller designs,
such as some glass fiber units, the casing may
essentially be the frame.
Fill. Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood)
to facilitate heat transfer by maximizing water and air
contact. There are two types of fill:
Splash fill: water falls over successive layers of
horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into
smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface.
Plastic splash fills promote better heat transfer than
wood splash fills.

 Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic

surfaces over which the water spreads, forming a
thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may
be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or other patterns.
The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides
same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the
splash fill.
Cold-water basin. The cold-water basin is located at or
near the bottom of the tower, and it receives the cooled
water that flows down through the tower and fill. The
basin usually has a sump or low point for the cold-water
discharge connection.
In many tower designs, the coldwater basin is beneath
the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design,
however, the water at the bottom of the fill is channeled
to a perimeter trough that functions as the coldwater
basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to
blow the air up through the tower.

With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing

easy access to the fans and their motors.
Drift eliminators. These capture water droplets
entrapped in the air stream that otherwise would be lost
to the atmosphere.
Air inlet. This is the point of entry for the air entering a
tower. The inlet may take up an entire side of a tower
(cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the
bottom of the tower (counter-flow design).
Louvers. Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers.
The purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow into the fill
and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow
tower designs do not require louvers.

Nozzles. These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water

distribution at the top of the fill is essential to achieve
proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either
be fixed and spray in a round or square patterns, or they
can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some
circular cross-section towers.
Fans. Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are
used in towers. Generally, propeller fans are used in
induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal
fans are found in forced draft towers. Depending upon
their size, the type of propeller fans used is either fixed or
variable pitch.
A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be
used over a wide kW range because the fan can be
adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest
power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can
vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.

TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS

Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Cross flow natural draft cooling towerCounter flow natural draft cooling
tower

MECHANICAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS

Figure 4. Forced Draft Cooling Tower

ASSESSMENT OF COOLING TOWERS

This section describes how the performance of
cooling powers can be assessed.3 The performance
of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present
levels of approach and range against their design
values, identify areas of energy wastage and to
suggest improvements.
During the performance evaluation, portable
monitoring instruments are used to measure the
following parameters:

Wet bulb temperature of air

Dry bulb temperature of air
Cooling tower inlet water temperature
Cooling tower outlet water temperature
Exhaust air temperature
Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
Water flow rate
Air flow rate

a) Range (see Figure 7). This is the difference between

the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature. A
high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been
able to reduce the water temperature effectively, and
is thus performing well. The formula is:
CT Range (C) = [CW inlet temp (C) CW outlet temp
(C)]
b) Approach (see Figure 7). This is the difference
between
the
cooling
tower
outlet
coldwater
temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature. The
lower the approach the better the cooling tower
performance. Although, both range and approach
should be monitored, the `Approach is a better
indicator of cooling tower performance.
CT Approach (C) = [CW outlet temp (C) Wet bulb
temp (C)]

Effectiveness. This is the ratio between the range

and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e. difference
between cooling water inlet temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is
= Range / (Range + Approach). The higher this ratio,
the higher the cooling tower effectiveness.
CT Effectiveness (%) = 100 x (CW temp CW out
temp) / (CW in temp WB temp)
d) Cooling capacity. This is the heat rejected in
kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow rate of
water, specific heat and temperature difference.

e) Evaporation loss. This is the water quantity

evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically the
evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every
1,000,000 kCal heat rejected. The following formula can
be used (Perry):
Evaporation loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation
rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and
outlet water
f) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C). This is the ratio of
dissolved solids in circulating water to the dissolved
solids in make up water.
g) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of
concentration and the evaporation losses and is given
by formula:
Blow down = Evaporation loss / (C.O.C. 1)

h) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio. The L/G ratio of a cooling

tower is the ratio between the water and the air mass
flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design values,
but seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of
water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower
effectiveness.
Adjustments can be made by water box loading changes
or blade angle adjustments. Thermodynamic rules also
dictate that the heat removed from the water must be
equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air.
Therefore the following formulae can be used:
L(T1 T2) = G(h2 h1)
L/G = (h2 h1) / (T1 T2)
Where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (OC)
T2 = cold-water temperature (OC)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wetbulb temperature (same units as above)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb

Thank You