Waves

Waves can transfer energy and

information without a net motion of the
medium through which they travel.
They involve vibrations (oscillations) of
some sort.

Wave fronts
Wave fronts highlight the part of a wave
that is moving together (in phase).
= wavefront

Ripples formed by a
stone falling in water

Rays
Rays highlight the direction of energy
transfer.

Transverse waves
The oscillations are perpendicular to the
direction of energy transfer.
Direction of energy transfer

oscillation

Transverse waves
peak

trough

Transverse waves
Water ripples
Light
On a rope/slinky
Earthquake S

Longitudinal waves
The oscillations are parallel to the direction of
energy transfer.

Direction of energy transfer

oscillation

Longitudinal waves
compression

rarefraction

Longitudinal waves
Sound

Slinky

Earthquake P

Displacement - x
This measures the change that has taken place as a
result of a wave passing a particular point.
Zero displacement refers to the average position.

= displacement

Amplitude - A
The maximum displacement from the
mean position.

amplitude

Period - T
The time taken (in seconds) for one complete
oscillation. It is also the time taken for a
complete wave to pass a given point.

One complete wave

Frequency - f
The number of oscillations in one second.
Measured in Hertz.

50 Hz = 50 vibrations/waves/oscillations in one second.

Wavelength -
The shortest distance between points that
are in phase (points moving together or in
step).

wavelength

Wave speed - v
The speed at which the wave fronts pass
a stationary observer.
330 m.s-1

Period and frequency

Period and frequency are reciprocals of
each other

f = 1/T

T = 1/f

The Wave Equation

The time taken for one complete oscillation is
the period T. In this time, the wave will have
moved one wavelength .
The speed of the wave therefore is distance/time

v = /T = f
Lets try some
questions

Some example wave equation questions

1) A water wave has a frequency of 2Hz and a wavelength

of 0.3m. How fast is it moving?
0.6m/s
2) A water wave travels through a pond with a speed of
1m/s and a frequency of 5Hz. What is the wavelength
of the waves?
0.2m
3) The speed of sound is 330m/s (in air). When Dave
hears this sound his ear vibrates 660 times a second.
What was the wavelength of the sound?
0.5m
4) Purple light has a wavelength of around 6x10-7m and a
frequency of 5x1014Hz. What is the speed of purple
light?
3x108m/s

Representing waves
There are two ways we can represent a
wave in a graph;

Displacement/time graph
This looks at the movement of one point of
the wave over a period of time
displacement
cm

0.1
-1
-2

0.2

0.3

0.4

Time s

Displacement/time graph
This looks at the movement of one point of
the wave over a period of time
IMPORTANT NOTE:
This wave could be
either transverse or
longitudnal

displacement
cm

1
PERIOD
0.1
-1
-2

0.2

0.3

0.4

Time s

Displacement/distance graph
This is a snapshot of the wave at a
particular moment
displacement
cm

0.4
-1
-2

0.8

1.2

1.6

Distance cm

Displacement/distance graph
This is a snapshot of the wave at a
particular moment
IMPORTANT NOTE:
This wave could
also be either
transverse or
longitudnal

displacement
cm

1
WAVELENGTH
0.4
-1
-2

0.8

1.2

1.6

Distance cm

Wave intensity
This is defined as the amount of energy
per unit time flowing through unit area

It is normally measured in W.m-2

Wave intensity
For example,
imagine a window
with an area of 1m2.
If one joule of light
energy flows
through that window
every second we
say the light
intensity is 1 W.m-2.

Intensity at a distance from a

light source

I = P/4d2
where d is the distance from the light
source (in m) and P is the power of the
light source(in W)

Intensity at a distance from a

light source

I = P/4d2

Intensity and amplitude

The intensity of a wave is proportional to
the square of its amplitude

I a2
(or I = ka2)

Intensity and amplitude

This means if you double the amplitude of a wave,
its intensity quadruples!

I = ka2
If amplitude = 2a,
new intensity = k(2a)2
new intensity = 4ka2

Electromagnetic spectrum

700 - 420 nm
10-4 - 10-6 m

10 - 10 m
-2

10-1 - 103 m

-3

10-7 - 10-8 m

10-9 - 10-11 m
10-12 - 10-14 m

What do they all have in common?

700 - 420 nm
10-4 - 10-6 m

10 - 10 m
-2

10-1 - 103 m

-3

10-7 - 10-8 m

10-9 - 10-11 m
10-12 - 10-14 m

What do they all have in common?

They can travel in a vacuum
They travel at 3 x 108m.s-1 in a vacuum
(the speed of light)
They are transverse
They are electromagnetic waves (electric
and magnetic fields at right angles to each
oscillating perpendicularly to the direction
of energy transfer)

Refraction
When a wave changes speed (normally
when entering another medium) it may
refract (change direction)

Water waves
Water waves travel slower in shallow
water

Sound waves
Sound travels faster in warmer air

Light waves

Light slows down

as it goes from air
to glass/water

Snells law
There is a relationship between the speed
of the wave in the two media and the
angles of incidence and refraction

Ray, NOT
wavefronts

Snells law
speed in substance 1
speed in substance 2

sin1
sin2

Snells law
In the case of light only, we usually define a quantity
called the index of refraction for a given medium as

n=
cm

c = sin1/sin2

where c is the speed of

light in a vacuum and cm
is the speed of light in the
medium

c
vacuum

cm

Snells law
Thus for two different media

sin1/sin2 = c1/c2 = n2/n1

Refraction a few notes

The wavelength changes, the speed
changes, but the frequency stays the
same

Refraction a few notes

When the wave enters at 90, no change
of direction takes place.

Diffraction
Waves spread as they pass an obstacle or
through an opening

Diffraction
Diffraction is most when the opening or
obstacle is similar in size to the
wavelength of the wave

Diffraction patterns HL later!

Diffraction
Diffraction is most when the opening or
obstacle is similar in size to the
wavelength of the wave

Diffraction
Thats why we can
hear people
around a wall but
not see them!

Diffraction of radio waves

Superposition

Principle of superposition
When two or more waves meet, the
resultant displacement is the sum of the
individual displacements

Constructive and destructive

interference

When two waves of the same frequency

superimpose, we can get constructive
interference or destructive interference.

Superposition
In general, the displacements of two (or
more) waves can be added to produce a
resultant wave. (Note, displacements can
be negative)

Interference patterns
Ripple Tank Simulation

If we pass a wave through a pair of

slits, an interference pattern is
produced

Path difference
Whether there is constructive or
destructive interference observed at a
particular point depends on the path
difference of the two waves

Constructive interference if path

difference is a whole number of
wavelengths

Constructive interference if path

difference is a whole number of
wavelengths
antinode

Destructive interference if path

difference is a half number of
wavelengths

Destructive interference if path

difference is a half number of
wavelengths
node

Phase difference
is the time difference or phase angle by
which one wave/oscillation leads or lags
another.

180 or
radians

Phase difference
is the time difference or phase angle by
which one wave/oscillation leads or lags
another.

90 or /2
radians

Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

periodic motion in which the restoring
force is proportional and in the opposite
direction to the displacement

Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

periodic motion in which
the restoring force is in
the opposite durection
and proportional to the
displacement

F = -kx

Graph of motion
A graph of the motion will have this form

displacement

Time

Graph of motion
A graph of the motion will have this form
Amplitude

x0

Period

displacement

Time

Graph of motion
Notice the similarity with a sine curve

2 radians
/2

3/2

angle

Graph of motion
Notice the similarity with a sine curve
Amplitude

x = x0sin

x0
2 radians
/2

3/2

angle

Graph of motion

Amplitude

x0

Period

displacement

Time

Graph of motion

Amplitude

x0
displacement

Period

x = x0sint
Time

where = 2/T = 2f = (angular frequency in rad.s -1)

When x = 0 at t = 0

Amplitude

x0
displacement

Period

x = x0sint
Time

where = 2/T = 2f = (angular frequency in rad.s -1)

When x = x0 at t = 0

Amplitude

x0
displacement

Period

x = x0cost
Time

where = 2/T = 2f = (angular frequency in rad.s -1)

When x = 0 at t = 0

Amplitude

x0

Period

x = x0sint
v = v0cost

displacement

Time

where = 2/T = 2f = (angular frequency in rad.s -1)

When x = x0 at t = 0
x = x0cost
Amplitude

x0
displacement

Period

v = -v0sint
Time

where = 2/T = 2f = (angular frequency in rad.s -1)

To summarise!
When x = 0 at t = 0
x = x0sint and v = v0cost
When x = x0 at t = 0
x = x0cost and v = -v0sint
It can also be shown that v = (x02 x2)
and a = -2x
where = 2/T = 2f = (angular frequency in rad.s -1)

Maximum velocity?
When x = 0
At this point the acceleration is zero (no
resultant force at the equilibrium position).

Maximum acceleration?
When x = +/ x0

Here the velocity is zero

amax = -2x0

Oscillating spring
We know that F = -kx
and that for SHM, a = -2x (so F = -m2x)
So -kx = -m2x
k = m2
= (k/m)
Remembering that = 2/T
T = 2(m/k)

S.H.M.
Where is the
kinetic
energy
maxiumum?
Where is the
potential
energy
maximum?

It can be shown that.

Ek = m2(xo2 x2)
ET = m2xo2
Ep = m2x2
where = 2f = 2/T

Damping
In most real oscillating systems energy is lost
through friction.

The amplitude of oscillations gradually

decreases until they reach zero. This is called
damping

Underdamped
The system makes several oscillations
before coming to rest

Overdamped
The system takes a long time to reach
equilibrium

Critical damping
Equilibrium is reached in the quickest time

Natural frequency
All objects have a natural frequency that
they prefer to vibrate at.

Forced vibrations
If a force is applied at a different frequency
to the natural frequency we get forced
vibrations

Resonance
If the frequency of the external force is
equal to the natural frequency we get
resonance
YouTube - Ground Resonance - Side View
YouTube - breaking a wine glass using resonance
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=6ai2QFxStxo&feature=relmfu