Chapter 2

Data Manipulation

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Chapter 2: Data Manipulation

2.1 Computer Architecture
2.2 Machine Language
2.3 Program Execution

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Computer Architecture -

Von Neumann architecture

The von Neumann architecture is a

computer design model specifying
sequential architectures.
- Use a single storage structure to
hold both instructions and data.
- Run any arbitrary (but well-formed)
sequence of instructions;
- Have inputs and outputs;

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Computer Architecture
Central Processing Unit
(CPU) or processor
Arithmetic/Logic unit
versus Control unit
Registers
General purpose (Data
registers, address
registers)
Special purpose PC, IR
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BUS
Control lines These
allow the CPU to control
which operations the
devices attached should
perform, I.E. read or
write.
Address lines
Allows the CPU to
reference certain
(Memory) locations
within the device.
Data lines
The meaningful data
which is to be sent or
retrieved from a device is
placed on to these lines.
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Figure 2.1 CPU and main

memory connected via a bus

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Stored Program Concept & CPU

Operation
A program can be encoded as
bit patterns and stored in
main memory. From there,
the CPU can then extract the
instructions and execute
them. In turn, the program to
be executed can be altered
easily.

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Terminology
Machine instruction: An instruction (or
command) encoded as a bit pattern
recognizable by the CPU
Machine language: The set of all instructions
recognized by a machine

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Machine Language Philosophies

Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
Example: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola

Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)

Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
Example: Pentium from Intel

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Machine Instruction Types

Data Transfer: copy data from one location to
another
Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to
compute a new bit patterns
Control: direct the execution of the program

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Figure 2.2 Adding values stored

in memory

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Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored

in memory

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Figure 2.4 The architecture of the

machine described in Appendix C

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Parts of a Machine Instruction

Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute
Operand: Gives more detailed information
about the operation
Interpretation of operand varies depending on opcode

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Figure 2.5 The composition of an

instruction for the machine in
Appendix C

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Figure 2.6 Decoding the

instruction 35A7

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Figure 2.7 An encoded version of

the instructions in Figure 2.2

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Program Execution
Controlled by two special-purpose registers
Program counter: address of next instruction
Instruction register: current instruction

Machine Cycle
Fetch
Decode
Execute

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Figure 2.8 The machine cycle

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Figure 2.9 Decoding the

instruction B258

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Figure 2.10 The program from Figure

2.7 stored in main memory ready for
execution

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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch

step of the machine cycle

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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch

step of the machine cycle (contd)

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Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
10011010
11001001 AND
10001000

10011010
11001001 OR
11011011

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10011010
11001001XOR
01010011

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Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit

pattern A3 one bit to the right
1. Circular Shift or Rotation
Right Shift
Left Shift
2. Logical Shift

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Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit

pattern A3 one bit to the right

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Controller
Communication between a computer and other devices
is normally handled through an intermediary apparatus
known as a controller.
The controller connects via cables to peripheral devices
within the computer case or perhaps to a connector,
called a port.

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Controller
A controller translates messages and data back and forth
between forms compatible with the internal
characteristics of the computer and those of the
peripheral device to which it is attached.
Originally, each controller was designed for a particular
type of device; thus, purchasing a new peripheral device
often required the purchase of a new controller as well.

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USB and FireWire

Universal serial bus (USB) and FireWire, by which a
single controller is able to handle a variety of devices.
For example, a single USB controller can be used as the
interface between a computer and any collection of
USB-compatible devices.

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USB and FireWire

USB was developed under the lead of Intel. The
development of FireWire was led by Apple.
In both cases the underlying theme is for a single
controller to provide external ports at which a variety of
peripheral devices can be attached. In this setting, the
controller translates the internal signal characteristics of
the computer to the appropriate USB or FireWire
standard signals.
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USB and FireWire

FireWire provides faster transfer rate than USB

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Direct Memory Access

Controller is attached to a computer's bus, it can carry on
its own communication with main memory during those
nanoseconds in which the CPU is not using the bus. This
ability of a controller to access main memory is known
as Direct Memory Access.
CPU then starts working on other processes while
controller takes care of transfer data requested by the
CPU, in this manner CPUs computing resources are not
wasted.
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Direct Memory Access

In Von Neumann architecture all the communication is
performed through a centralized bus due to which at
certain point of time when more data and/or data from
multiple storage is transferred to main memory causes
impediment, known as Von Neumann bottleneck.

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Handshaking
Communication between two devices needs agreement
form both the devices. e.g. if we need to transfer data
from one device to another then both the devices
involved in data transfer should agree about this data
transfer. Thus Constant two way dialogue between
devices is known as handshaking.

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Communication Media
Parallel
Serial
The transfer of digital data over telephone lines is
accomplished by first converting bit patterns into
audible tones by means of a modem (short for
modulator-demodulator), transferring these tones
serially over the telephone system, and then converting
the tones back into bits by another modem at the
destination.
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Communication Media
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), which takes advantage
of the fact that existing telephone lines are capable of
handling a wider frequency range than that used by
traditional voice communication. More precisely, DSL
uses frequencies above the audible range to transfer
digital data while leaving the lower frequency spectrum
for voice communication. Other technologies that
compete with DSL include cable, as used in cable
television systems, and satellite links via radiobroadcast.
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Communication Rates
The rate at which bits are transferred from one
computing component to another is measured in bits per
second (bps). Common units include
Kbps (kilo-bps, equal to 1000 bps), Mbps (megabps, equal to 1 million bps),
Gbps (giga-bps, equal to1 billion bps). (Note the
distinction between bits and bytes-that is, 8 Kbps is
equal to 1 KB per second.
In abbreviations, a lowercase b usually means bit
whereas an uppercase B means byte.)
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Communication Rates
Multiplexing the encoding or interweaving of data so
that a single communication path serves the purpose of
multiple paths.
Bandwidth indicates the capacity to carry information
or data.

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Other Architecture
Pipelining
A technique
microprocessors where the
executing a second instruction
completed.
Pipelining can be viewed as a
processing.

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used
in
advanced
microprocessor begins
before the first has been
first step toward parallel

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Other Architecture

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Other Architecture

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Other Architecture
Multiprocessor
MIMD (multiple-instruction stream, multiple-data
stream)
SISD (single-instruction stream, single-data stream)

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Review
Concept of instruction
Basics of computer architecture
- Von Newmann architecture model
- Roles of memory, CPU(control unit, ALU,
Registers), Bus, I/O
- Decoding of instructions
- Machine cycle (Control unit performs its job)
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Review : Von Neumann architecture model

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