Mathiessen s rule : It states that

the electrical resistivity [ ] of the

material is the sum of the residual
resistivity
due to scattering by
impurities [ o ] and
the ideal
resistivity
due to
scattering by
phonons [ T ] ie., = o + T

The ability of certain

metals and alloys exhibit
almost zero electrical
resistivity, when they are
cooled
to
low
temperature.

Critical temperature (Tc )

Critical magnetic field (Hc )

Critical current density (Jc)

Normal conductor

(Ag )

TC

superconductor (Tin)

 the temperature at which the

resistivity falls to zero is called

transition temperature
or
Critical temperature
The temperature at which the

normal conductor
superconductor
is

becomes
a
known
as

The electrical resistivity drops to zero at Tc.

The magnetic flux lines are excluded (ejected out)

from the superconductor.

There is a discontinuous change in the specific

heat.
There are small changes in the thermal

conductivity and volume of the material.

 an electron pair called cooper

pair is formed at low temperature

by overcoming the repulsive force
The cooper pair moves without
scattering
(without
any
resistance)
in
the
lattice
structure.
Now
the
material
becomes a super conductor
suitable only for low temperature
superconductors

1
Cooper

pair

The electrical resistivity drops to zero

at Tc.
The magnetic flux lines are excluded

(ejected out) from the superconductor.

There is a discontinuous change in
the specific heat.
There are small changes in the
thermal conductivity and volume of the
material

Based on the value of Hc

(1) Type I (or) Soft
superconductors
(2) Type II (or) Hard
superconductors
Based on the value of Tc
(1) High temperature
superconductors

Sl.

TYPE I (OR) SOFT SUPERCONDUCTORS

TYPE II (OR) HARD SUPERCONDUCTORS

No.

1. It exhibits a complete Meissner Effect

2. They are completely diamagnetic
3. Eg: Tin, Lead, Mercury, etc.,
4.
Hb

SCS

It does not exhibit a complete Meissner effect.

They are not complete diamagnetic
Eg: Nb - Zr, Nb -Ti, - Ga, etc.,
Hb

NCS
NCS
Hc

Ha

Ha Applied magnetic field

Hb Induced magnetic field
5.

SCS

mixed state
Hc1 Hc

Hc2

The value of Hc is always too low.

It is about 0.1 tesla
6. They have only one critical magnetic field value

The values of Hc is high and it is about 30 tesla

7. No mixed state exists

8. These are called soft superconductors
9. It requires low magnetic filed to destroy the
superconductivity
10 It loses its magnetization suddenly
.

Mixed state is present

These are called hard Superconductors
It requires large magnetic filed to destroy the
superconductivity
It loses its magnetization gradually

They have two critical magnetic field values .

Lower critical magnetic filed [ Hc1 ] and
Higher critical magnetic field [ Hc2 ] .

High Tc superconductors

Low Tc superconductors

1) It has high Tc ( >100K).

1) It has low Tc (< 20K).

2) Superconduction is due to hole

2) Super conduction is due to

states.

cooper
pairs.

3) Explained by RVB theory.

3) Explained by BCS theory.

4) Very useful for commercial and

4) It is not so useful due to its low

temperature maintenance.

Engineering applications.
5) It is called as P type
superconductors

5) It is called as n type
superconductors

Bednorz and Muller in 1986 having critical

temperature greater than 30K

critical temperature greater than 100 K are
known as high TC Superconductors or ceramic or
oxide superconductors
The Super conduction is due to hole states
and it is explained by RVB theory proposed by
Anderson
It is very useful for commercial and Engineering
applications and it is called as P type
superconductors .

High Tc Superconductors have high transition

temperatures.
They have a modified perovskite crystal
structure.
In which Superconducting state is direction
dependent.
These are oxides of copper with other elements.
These are reactive , brittle , and cannot be
easily modified or joined.
For high Tc superconductors, liquid nitrogen is used

HIGH TC SUPERCONDUCTORS
1. (La Ba)2 CuO4

(214 system)

Tc
40K

2. (La Sr)2 CuO4

40K

3. Pb2 Y Sr2 Cu3O8

77K

4. (PbCu) (SrBa)2 (CaY)Cu2O7

5. YBa2Cu3O7

(123 system )

80K
90K

6. Bi2 Sr2 Can-1 Cun O2n+4

10K to 110K

7. Tl2 Ba2 Ca2 Cu3O10

125K

8. Hg Ba2 Ca2 Cu3O8

150K

1. Electric generators can be made by using

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

superconductors with smaller size, less weight,

low energy consumption.
Superconductors can be used for the
transmission of power over very long distances.
Superconducting transformers are available.
Superconductors can be used in switching
Devices.
The superconductors can be used in sensitive
electrical instruments.
It can be used as a mercury or storage element
in computers.
These are used to design Cryotron , Maglev ,

8. D.C. Superconducting motors used in ship

propulsion and in large mills.

9. Superconducting magnetic field may be used to
lunch satellite into orbit directly from the earth
without use of rockets.
10.Ore separation can be done by using machines
made of superconducting magnets.
11.These are used in NMR (Nuclear magnetic
Resonance) imaging equipments for scanning.
12.Superconductors are used for the detection of
brain tumor , defective cells, etc.,
13.Superconducting solenoids are used in magneto
hydrodynamic power generation to maintain the
plasma in the body.

A
B
When the critical magnetic field of wire B

exceed or less than that of superconducting

material A , the current in A can be controlled
by the current in the material B.
It can act as relay or switching elements and

it can be used as memory or storage element

in computers

When the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the

plane of the ring, current is induced at the two Josephson
junctions and produces interference pattern
The induced current flows around the ring, so that the
magnetic flux in the ring can have quantum values of flux,

which corresponds to the value of magnetic field applied.

SQUIDs are used to detect the variation in very minute
magnetic signals
SQUIDs are also used in the study of earth quakes,
removing paramagnetic impurities, detection of magnetic
signals from the brain, heart, etc.,

DC - Josephson effect

Tin

Zn

When two superconducting materials are

separated by a thin layer of insulating
material,
There is a DC current flows through the
circuit in the absence of electric field or
magnetic field.
The gap is in the order of 50 Ao 100 Ao.

AC - Josephson effect

microwaves

When two superconducting materials are

separated by a thin layer of insulating
material, there is a microwave generated
when it is connected with DC external
voltage.
Josephson devices are used to produce
microwaves.

TRAIN

Guiding system

When a magnet is placed over a

superconductor, the magnet floats, this

phenomenon is known as magnetic levitation. This
is based on diamagnetic property of a
superconductor. A diamagnetic material rejects the
magnetic flux lines.
Maglev is a magnetic levitated train.
Electromagnetic induction principle is used here.
This train cannot move over the rail, instead , it
floats above the rails, so that it moves faster with
speed of 500 Km/hr without any frictional loss.
It has two superconducting magnet on each side
the train, and there is guiding system consisting of
8 shaped coils on each side. Due to actions of
these magnets the train moves faster by

Initially when the train starts, they slide on the rails.

Now , when the train moves faster, the superconducting
magnets on each side of the train will induce a current
in the 8 shaped coils kept in the guiding system
This induced current generates a magnetic force in the

coils in such a way that the lower half of 8 shaped

coli has the same magnetic pole as that of the
superconducting magnet in the train
while the upper half has the opposite magnetic pole.
Therefore, the total upward magnetic force acts on the
train and the train is levitated or raised above the
wheels and floats in the air.

Now , by alternatively changing the poles of

the superconducting magnet in the train
alternating currents can be induced in 8
shaped coils

Thus , alternating series of north and south

magnetic poles are produced in the coils, which
pulls and pushes the superconducting magnets
in the train
Hence the train is further moved. This can
travel a speed of 500 km per hour