Continuous Column

Distillation

Column diagram
total condenser

stripping section

all three external

streams (F, D, B) can be
liquids (usual case)
for a binary
feed
mixture, the
F, xF
compositions xF, xD,
xB all refer to the
more volatile
component
to keep the liquid flow
rate constant, part of the
distillate must be returned
to the top of the column as
reflux
the partial reboiler is the last
equilibrium stage in the system

reflux
L, xR

feed
stage
L

temperature

enriching section

liquid/vapor streams
inside the column flow
counter-current in direct
contact with each other

reflux drum
(accumulat
or)
distillate
D, xD
xR = x D
yB x B
xD K xB

boilup
V, yB

partial reboiler

bottoms
B, xB

External mass balance

TMB: F = D + B
CMB: F xF = D xD + B xB
for specified F, xF, xD, xB,
there are only 2
feed
unknowns (D, B)
F, x

distillate
D, xD

x x
B
D F

xD xB

B=FD

bottoms
B, xB

External energy balance

assume column is wellinsulated, adiabatic

EB:

distillate
D, xD

F hF + QC + QR
= D hD + B hB

F, hF are known

feed
F, xF

D and B are saturated liquids

so hD, hB are also known
unknowns: QC, QR
need another equation

bottoms
B, xB

Balance on condenser
1. Mass balance
TMB: V1 = D + L0
CMB: y1 = xD = xR (doesnt help)

vapor
V1, y1

unknowns: V1, L0
specify external reflux ratio R = L0/D

reflux
L0, xR distillate
D, xD

V1 = D + (L0/D)D = (1 + R)D
2. Energy balance
V1H1 + QC = (D + L0)hD = V1hD
QC = V1(hD H1)
then calculate QR from column energy balance

hD > H1
QC < 0
QR > 0

Splits
Sometimes used instead of
specifying compositions in product
streams.
What is the fractional recovery (FR)
of benzene in the distillate?
What is the fractional recovery (FR)
of toluene in the bottoms?
Most volatile component (MVC) is
benzene:

xDD0.46
0.99D
FRMVC xF =

xF F 0.46F
FRLVC

(1 xB )B 0.98D

(1 xF )F 0.54F

Calculating fractional
recoveries
x x
0.46 0.02
0.44
F
B
D

(620) 281

0.97
0.99 0.02
xD xB

B = F D = 620 - 281 = 339

FRMVC

FRLVC

xDD 0.99(281)

0.975
xF F 0.46(620)

(1 xB )B 0.98(339)

0.992
(1 xF )F 0.54(620)

Stage-by-stage analysis
Lewis-Sorel method

onsider the top of the distillation column:

vapor
V1, y1

stage 1
L1
x1

V1, V2 are saturated vapors

L0, L1 are saturated liquids
reflux
L0, x0

distillate
D, xD

V2
y2

Which streams have compositions related by VL

V1, L1
They are streams leaving the same equilibrium st
K1(T1,P) = y1/x1

How are the compositions of streams V2 and L1

related?

Relationships for stage 1

vapor
V1, y1

stage 1
L1
x1

V2
y2

reflux
L0, x0

distillate
D, xD

TMB:
CMB:
EB:
V1H1
VLE:

L0 + V2 = L 1 + V1
L 0x 0 + V 2y 2 = L1x 1 + V 1y 1
L 0 h0 + V 2 H 2 = L 1 h 1 +
K1(T1,P) = y1/x1

There are 14 variables:

We usually specify 10 of
4 flow rates (L1, V2, L0,
them:
P, xD, D, R = L0/D
V 1)
xD = x0 = y1
4 compositions (x1, y2,
V1 = L0 + D
x0, y1)
all 4 enthalpies
4 enthalpies
(h1, H2(L
, h,0,x , V ,Ty1 and
4 unknowns
)
and
4 equations:
1
1
2
2
(by VLE)
H1)

Relationships for stage 2

L1,x1

V2,y2
stage 2

L2,x2

V3,y3

TMB: L1 + V3 = L2 + V2
CMB: L1x1 + V3y3 = L2x2 + V2y2
EB: L1h1 + V3H3 = L2h2 + V2H2
VLE: K2(T2,P) = y2/x2
can solve for 4 unknowns (L2, x2, V3,
y 3)

and so on proceed down the column to the reboiler. Very

tedious.
Simplifying assumption:
If i (latent heat of vaporization) is not a strong function of
composition, then each mole of vapor condensing on a
given stage causes one mole of liquid to vaporize.

Constant molal overflow

TMB: L1 + V3 = L2 + V2
CMO: V3 - V2 = L2 - L1 = 0
V 3 = V2 = V
L2 = L1 = L
We can drop all subscripts on L and V in the
upper section of the column (above the feed
stage).
internal reflux ratio: L/V = constant

Rectifying column
Feed enters at the bottom, as a
vapor.
No reboiler required.
L, xR D, xD

Can give very pure distillate; but

bottoms stream will not be very
pure.
stage j
Vj+1,yj+1

F, xF

Lj,xj

B, xB

Mass balance around top of

CMB:
Vj+1yj+1
= Ljx
Dxincluding
D
column,
down
toj +
and
stage j:
CMO: yj+1 = (L/V) xj + (D/V) xD
D=V-L
yj+1 = (L/V) xj + (1 - L/V) xD
Relates compositions of passing stream

Lewis analysis of rectifying

column
1. Assume CMO (Vj = Vj+1 = V; Lj = Lj-1
= L)
2. Need specified xD; xD = y1
3. Stage 1: use VLE to obtain x1
x1 = y1/K1(T1,P)
4. Use mass balance to obtain y2
y2 = (L/V) x1 + (1 - L/V) xD
5. Stage 2: use VLE to obtain x2
x2 = y2/K2(T2,P)
6. Use mass balance to obtain y3
y3 = (L/V) x2 + (1 - L/V) xD
7. Continue until x = xB

Graphical analysis of rectifying column

uation of the operating line:

= (L/V) x + (1 - L/V) xD

VL

0.9

0.8
ope = (L/V)
ways positive (compare to flash drum)0.7
0.6

y(MeOH)

lotting the operating line:

nt = (1 - L/V) xD

op

0.5

xD =
x0
(x0,y1
)

e
in
l
.

0.4

find a second point on the

0.3
operating line:
yint
y = x = (L/V) x + (1 - L/V) xD = xD 0.2
plot xD on y = x
0.1
all: xD = xR = x0; the passing stream is y
0 1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

operating line starts at the point (x0,y1)

operating line gives the compositions of all passing streams (xj,yj+1)

0.9

McCabe-Thiele analysis: rectifying

column
1.
2.
3.
4.

Plot VLE line (yi vs. xi)

Draw the y = x line
Plot xD on y = x
Plot yint = xD (1 L/V)
L/V internal reflux ratio, usually not specified
instead, the external reflux ratio (R) is specified

L
L
L
D R
D
(L D)
V V
R 1
D
D

5. Draw in the operating line

6. Step off stages, alternating between VLE and
operating line,
starting at (x0,y1) located at y = x = xD, until you
reach x = xB

Ex.: MeOH-H2O rectifying column

ctifying column with total condenser

1
ecifications: xD = 0.8, R = 2
d N required to achieve xB = 0.1 0.9

NEVER step over the VLE line.

stage 1
(x1,y1)

0.8
0.7

1. Plot VLE line

3. Plot xD on y=x
4. Plot yint = xD (1 - L/V)

y(MeOH)

2. Draw y=x line

stage 2
(x2,y2)

0.6

VL

e
in
l
.

xD= x0
(x0,y1)

(x1,y2)

op
(x2,y3) =x
y

0.5

stage 3
(x3,y3)

0.4

0.3
L/V = R/(R+1) = 2/3

yint = xD(1 - L/V)= 0.8/3 = 0.26 int

0.2

5. Draw in operating line

6. Step off stages from xD to xB
7. Count the stages
N=3

0.1
0

lowest xB possible for this op. line

0

x
0.1 B 0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Limiting cases: rectification

pecifications:
D = 0.8, vary R = L/D

1
0.9

0
= L/D 0 NO REFLUX
/V 0

rating line is y=x

VL

stage 1
(x1,y1)

0.8

xD= x0
(x0,y1)

0.7

0R
0 L/V 1

0.6

y(MeOH)

Column operates like a

single equilibrium
stage.
(Why bother?)
0
= L/D TOTAL REFLUX
/V = R/(R+1) 1
LHpitals Rule)

L/V = 0
No reflux!

0.5

y=

0.4

0.3
0.2

L/V = 1
Total reflux!

0.1

distance between VLE and op. line0

0
separation on each equil. stage
sponds to Nmin, but no distillate!

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Minimum reflux ratio

L/V = 0
1

Specifications:
xD = 0.8, vary R

VL

0.9

0.8

This represents xB,min for a

particular R.

Increasing R = L/D
Decreasing D
Decreasing xB (for fixed N)

x
=
y
Rmin for this xB

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

It also represents Rmin

for this value of xB.

xD= x0
(x0,y1)

0.7

y(MeOH)

The number of stages N

required to reach the VLEop. line intersection point
is .

0.2

0 L/V 1
0R

0.1

L/V = 1

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

xB ,min for this R

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Optimum reflux ratio

stages

cost/lb

total cost
capital cost
operating (energy) cost

min. heat
required

Rmin

Ropt

external reflux ratio, R

Ractual

Rule-of-thumb:
1.05 Ropt/Rmin 1.25
can be specified as a multiple of Rmin

Stripping column
Feed enters at the top, as a
liquid.

F, xF

No reflux required.
D, xD
Lk-1,
xk-1

Can give very pure bottoms; but

distillate stream will not be very
pure.

Vk,yk

stage k

B, xB

Mass balance around bottom of

CMB:
Lk-1xk-1
Vkand
yk +including
BxB
column,
up=to
stage k:
CMO: yk = (L/V) xk-1 - (B/V) xB
L=V+B
yk = (L/V) xk-1 + (1 - L/V) xB

Graphical analysis of stripping column

quation of the operating line:

= (L/V) x + (1 - L/V) xB

ope = L / V
ways positive

0.8

nding the operating line slope:

L V B
B

1
V
V
V

ecall V/B is the boilup ratio)

op
.

0.5

lin

(xN+1,yN+1
)
PR

0.6

0.7

y(MeOH)

plotting the operating line:

y = x = (L/V) x + (1 - L/V) xB = xB
plot xB on y = x

VL

0.9

0.4
0.3
0.2

xB = xN
(xN+1,yN+2)

0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

x(MeOH)

is the partial reboiler? Designate this as stage N+1, with x N+1 = xB.
Coordinates of the reboiler: (xN+1,yN+1)

0.9

McCabe-Thiele analysis: stripping

column
1. Plot VLE line (yi vs. xi)
2. Draw the y = x line
3. Plot xB on y = x
4. Draw in the operating line
5. Step off stages, alternating between VLE and
operating line,
starting at (xN+1,yN+2) located at y = x = xB, until
you reach x = xD
6. Count the stages.

Ex.: MeOH-H2O stripping column

NEVER step over the VLE line.

y(MeOH)

(0.7,1)
1

Column with partial reboiler

E
0.9
VL
Specifications:
stage 1
(xN-2,yN-2)
xB = 0.07, V / B 2
stage 2
0.8

Find N required to achieve xD = 0.55

(xN-1,yN-1) (xN-2,yN-2)
0.7
stage 3
1. Plot
VLE line
(xN-1,yN)
(xN,yN)
0.6
2. Draw y=x line
xD,max for this
0.5
3. Plot xB = xN+1 on y = x
boilup ratio
x
=
4. Draw op. line
0.4
y
PR
(xN,yN+1)
L / V 1 B / V 1.5
(xN+1,
0.3
y 1 1.5x 0.05 x 1.05 /1.5 0.7
yN+1)
0.2

5. Step off stages starting at PR

you reach x = x
6. Stop when
D

7. Count the stages.

0.1
0

xB= xN+1
(xN+1,yN+2)
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x
D

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Limiting cases: stripping

pecifications:
V /B
B = 0.07, vary boilup ratio

VL

0.9

1.
NO BOILUP

B0

0.8
0.7

y(MeOH)

Behaves as if the
column wasnt even
there.
(Why bother?)

0.6

1 L /V

0.5

V / B 0

0.4

TOTAL BOILUP

rating line is y=x

0.3

y=

PR

TOTAL BOILUP

0.2
0.1

L /V 1

L /V

xB= xN+1 NO BOILUP

distance between VLE and op. line0

0
0.1
separation on each equil. stage
0.2
sponds to Nmin. But no bottoms product!

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Minimum boilup ratio

1

pecifications:
B = 0.07, vary boilup ratio

This represents yD,max for

a particular boilup ratio.

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

It also represents the

minimum boilup ratio
for this value of yD.

VL

u
N)
l
i
d
bo
xe
g
fi
n
si ng B (for
a
re asi
xD
c
L /V 1
n
e
g
I
r
n
c
i
Total boilup
De reas
x
c
PR
In
y=

0.2

1 L /V

L /V

0.1
0

io
t
a
pr

0.7

y(MeOH)

The number of stages N

required to reach the VLEop. line intersection point
is .

yD ,max for
0.9
this boilup ratio

0.8

V / B 0

xB= xN+1 No boilup

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

McCabe-Thiele analysis
of complete distillation column

3. Draw both op. lines

4. Step off stages starting
at either end, using new
op. line as you cross their
intersection
5. Stop when you
reach the other
6.endpoint
Count stages
7. Identify feed stage

stage 1

xD

0.7

stage 2

0.6

0.5
0.4
0.3

y=

PR

lin
e

2. Plot xD and xB on y=x

0.8

VL

op
.

1. Draw y=x line

Feed enters
on stage 2

0.9

to
p

y(MeOH)

Total condenser, partial reboiler

Specifications:
xD = 0.8, R = 2
xB = 0.07, V / B 2
Find N required
Locate feed stage

0.2
0.1
0

xB
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

NEVER step
over the VLE
line.
0.7

0.8

0.9

Feed condition
Changing the feed temperature
affects internal flow rates in the
column
If
the feed enters as a saturated liquid,

L LF

If the feed enters as a saturated vapor,

V V F

If the feed flashes as it enters the feed stage

to form a two-phase mixture, 50 % liquid,
both the liquid and vapor flow rates will
increase:
L L 0.5F

and V V 0.5F

F L V L V

the vapor flow rate above the feed stage

will increase:

feed
F

the liquid flow rate below the feed

stage will increase:

Feed quality, q
EB:

FhF LhL VHV LhL VHV

rearrange:

FhF (V V)HV (L L)hL

TMB:

V V L L F

substitute:

FhF (L L F)HV (L L)hL

combine terms:

(L L)(HV hL ) F(HV hF )

define:

L L HV hF q q mol satd

liquid
F
HV hL
generated on

Different types of feed

quality

L L
q
F

saturated liquid feed

saturated vapor feed

0

L L qF and V V (1 q)F
q=1

L LF
V V F

feed flashes to form 2-phase

L L qF
<q<1
mixture, q% liquid
subcooled liquid feed
q>1

q=
0

- some vapor condenses on feed plate

superheated vapor
0

q<

Equation of the feed line

rectifying section CMB: Vy j1 Lx j DxD
stripping section CMB:

Vyk Lxk1 BxB

intersection of top and (V V)y (L L)x (Bx Dx )

B
D
bottom operating lines:
BxB DxD FzF
substitute:

L L
FzF
y
x

V V
V V

L L qF and V V (1 q)F

equation of the feed line:

y

z
q
x F
(1 q)
1 q

Plotting the feed line

zF
q
y
x
(1 q)
1 q

where does the feed line intersect y=x?

zF
q
x
x
(1 q)
1 q

zF
q
x 1

(1 q) 1 q

0.7

y(MeOH)

0.6

sat'd vapor

liq
oled

e
as
ph
2-

0.8

VLE

sub
co

0.9

sat'd liq

zF
x

1 q 1 q

zF
p
va
0.4
d
e
eat
h
r
0.3 upe
s
0.5

0.2
0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

y=x
= zF

feed type
q
slope, m
sat'd liquid
q=1 m =
sat'd vapor
q=0 m = 0
2-phase liq/vap 0<q<1m < 0
subcooled liq
q>1 m > 1
superheated vap q<0 0<m<1

Ex.: Complete MeOH-H2O column

1

Total condenser, partial reboiler

Specifications:
xD = 0.9, xB = 0.04, zF = 0.5, R=1
Feed is a 2-phase mixture, 50% liq.
Find N and NF,opt.

2. Plot xD, xB and zF on y=x

3. Draw feed line, slope = -0.5

3
4

0.7

0.5

0.4
0.3

4. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V = 0.5

5. Draw bottom op. line
(no calc. required)
6. Step off stages starting
at either end, using new
op. line as you cross the
feed line.

0.8

0.6

y(MeOH)

1. Draw y=x line

N = 6 + PR

0.9

0.2

PR
0.1

xB
0

0.1

0.2

xD

Operating
lines
zF
intersect
on stage 4.
x
This is
y=
NF,opt.
We can independently
specify only 2 of the
following 3 variables: R, q,
V/B (usually: R, q).
0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

x(MeOH)

Using a non-optimal feed location reduces

Feed lines in rectifying/stripping

columns
stripping column

rectifying column
1

0.9

0.9

0.8

0.7

xD

0.7

0.5

0.4

0.5
0.4

PR

z
F

0.3

top operating
line

0.3

0.2

0.2

xB

0.1

0.1

0.2

bottom operating line

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

x(MeOH)

total condenser, no reboiler

satd vapor feed, liquid bottoms
F and B are passing streams

yD
z
F

0.6

y(MeOH)

y(MeOH)

0.6

0.8

xB

0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

x(MeOH)

partial reboiler, no condenser

satd liquid feed, vapor distillate
F and V are passing streams

Design freedom
Fixed q. Vary R:

Fixed R. Vary q:

0.8

pinch
point

0.7

decrease R

0.6
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2
0.1
0

0.6

y(MeOH)

0.7

y(MeOH)

0.9

0.8

he
fe at
ed th

Rmin

0.9

xB

0.1

choice of R
dictates required
boilup ratio.
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

qmin
pinch point

0.2
0.1

0.9

xB

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

x(MeOH)

You cannot step over a pinch point this would require N = . It

corresponds to a position in the column where there is no difference in

0.9

Another type of pinch point

Ethanol-water
xD = 0.82, xB = 0.07
zF = 0.5, q = 0.5
Find Rmin

1
0.9

0.7

1. Draw y=x line

0.6

y(EtOH)

2. Plot xD, xB and zF on y=x

3. Draw feed line, slope = q/(q-1)

4. Draw top op. line to
intersect with feed line on
VLE line
5. Dont cross the VLE
line!
6. Redraw top operating
line as tangent to VLE.

xD

pinch
point

0.8

E
VL

0.5

zF

0.4

y=

0.3

0.2
0.1
0

xB
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(EtOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Additional column inputs/outputs

Column
with two
feeds:

Column with
three
products:
L

feed 2
F2, z2, q2

feed 1
F1, z1, q1
L

distillate
D, xD
z 2 > z1
and/or
q2 > q1

feed
F, z
L

bottoms
B, xB

distillate
D, xD
side-stream
S, xS or yS
sidestreams
must be
saturated
liquid or
vapor

bottoms
B, xB
rmediate input/output stream changes the mass balance, requiring a new opera

Multiple feedstreams

otal condenser, partial reboiler

1
pecifications:
D = 0.9, xB = 0.07, z1 = 0.4, z2=0.6
0.9
ome specified q-values
0.8
= 1. Find N, NF1,opt, NF2,opt

y(MeOH)

2. Plot xD, z1, z2 and xB on y=x

4. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V

5. Calculate slope of
middle operating line, L
/V, and draw middle
operating
line operating
6.
Draw bottom
line (no calc. required)
7. Step off stages starting
at either end, using new op.
line each time you cross an

0.7

1. Draw y=x line

3. Draw both feed lines

L
1 V

0.6

xD

z2

z1 = z2

0.5

z1

0.4

PR

0.3

y=

0.2
0.1
0

xB
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Optimum
location for feed
1 is stage 5.
Optimum
location for feed
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.9
2 is0.6stage
3.
x(MeOH)

Slope of middle operating line

2-feed mass balances:

TMB: F2 + V = L + D
CMB: F2z2 + Vyj+1 = Lxj + DxD
middle operating line equation:
y = (L/V)x + (DxD - F2z2)/V
obtain slope from:
L = F2q2 + L = F2q2 + (R)(D)
V = L + D F2

feed 2
F2, z2, q2

side-stream feed-stream with ve

flow rate satd liq
y = x = xS
satd vapor
y = x = yS
side-stream mass balances:
TMB: V- L= D + S
CMB: Vyj+1 - Lxj = DxD + SxS

middle operating line equation:

y = (L/V)x + (DxD + SxS)/V

D, xD
stage j
L

D, xD
stage j
L

side-stream
S, xS or yS

Saturated liquid side-stream, xs = 0.64 Saturated vapor side-stream, y = 0.7

s
1

0.9
0.8

0.7

0.6

LE

xS

E
VL

x
D

yS

0.5

0.4
0.3

0.2

0.2

0.1
0

0.6

0.3

0.8
0.7

0.5
0.4

0.9

y(MeOH)

y(MeOH)

McCabe-Thiele analysis of side-streams

xB
0

0.1

0.1
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

xB
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

x(MeOH)

Side-stream must correspond exactly to stage position.

0.8

0.9

Partial condensers
1

A partial condenser can be used

when a vapor distillate is desired:

D, yD
L, x0
V

0.8

0.7

PC

yD

0.6

y(MeOH)

V, y1

0.9

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

partial condenser is an equilibrium stage.0.1

MB: Vyj+1 = Lxj + DyD

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

perating line equation:

y = (L/V)x + DyD = (L/V)x + (1 - L/V)yD

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Total reboilers
1

A total reboiler is simpler (less

expensive) than a partial reboiler
and is used when the bottoms
stream is readily vaporized:

0.9
0.8

N-1

0.7

stage N

y(MeOH)

0.6

0.5
0.4

V, yB

0.3

B, xB
A total reboiler is not an
equilibrium stage.

0.2

TRxB,yB

0.1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Stage efficiency
Under real operating conditions, equilibrium is approached but
not achieved:
Nactual > Nequil
overall column efficiency:

Eoverall = Nequil/Nactual

Efficiency can vary from stage to stage.

Reboiler efficiency tray efficiency
Murphree vapor efficiency:

E MV

yn yn1
yn * yn1

where yn* is the equilibrium vapor

composition (not actually achieved) on
stage n:

Can also define Murphree

liquid efficiency:

E ML

xn xn1
xn * xn1

x j* = y j / Kj

Ex.: Vapor efficiency of MeOH-H2O column

Total condenser, partial
reboiler
Specifications:
xD = 0.9, xB = 0.07, z = 0.5,
q = 0.5,
R = 1, EMV,PR = 1, EMV = 0.75.
N y=x
and N
1.Find
Draw
line
F,opt.

3. Draw feed line

0.8
0.7

6. Find partial reboiler

7. Step off stages, using
EMV to adjust vertical step
size.
8. Label real stages.

6
7

0.6

y=

0.3

N = 8 + PR

PR
0.2

NF,opt = 6

0.1
0

0.5
0.4

4. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V

5. Draw bottom operating
line (no calc. required)

1 xD

0.9

y(MeOH)

2. Plot xD, z, and xB on y=x

xB
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

x(MeOH)

To use ELV, adjust horizontal step size instead.

Intermediate condensers and

reboilers
Intermediate condensers/reboilers can
improve the energy efficiency of column
distillation:
1. by decreasing the heat that must be
supplied at the bottom of the
column, providing part of the heat
using an intermediate reboiler
instead

feed
F, z

distillate
D, xD
S, xS

- use a smaller (cheaper) heating

element at the bottom of the column, or
lower temperature steam to heat the
boilup

V
yS = xS

2. by decreasing the cooling that must

be supplied at the top of the column,
providing part of the cooling using an
intermediate condenser instead

3. - use a smaller (cheaper) cooling element

at the top of the column, and/or a higher
ach column
section
hasforits
operating
temperature
coolant
theown
intermediate

line.

intermedi
ate
reboiler

bottoms
B, xB

Subcooled reflux
If the condenser is located below the
top of the column, the reflux stream
has to be pumped to the top of the
column.
Pumping a saturated liquid
damages the pump, by causing
cavitation. The reflux stream (L0)
should be subcooled. This will
cause some vapor to condense.
V1 = V 2 - c
and
L1 = L 0 + c

V1, y1
stage 1
c
V2

L0, x0

L1

D, xD

CMO is valid below stage 1. Find L/V EB: V2H2 + L0h0 = V1H1 + L1h1
= L1/V2?
h h0
where H1 H2 = H, but h0 h1 = h
c
L0 (1 q0 )L0
q

quality
of
reflux
H h
0

2 q0 L0 / V1
L1 L0 c L0 (1 q0 )L0

V2 V1 c V1 (1 q0 )L0 1 (1 q0 )L0 / V1

here L0/V1 = (L0/D)/(1 + L0/D) = R/(R + 1)

(V2 V1)H = L1h - L0h0

cH = (L0 + c)h - L0h0 = L0(h - h0) + ch

Subcooled reflux causes L/V to
increase.

Open steam distillation

If the bottoms stream is primarily
water, then the boilup is primarily
steam.
L, xR D, xD
mostly MeOH

MeOH/H2O
feed
F, z

S, yS

L j,
xj

B, xB

Top operating line and feed lines

do not change.
Bottom operating line is different:

stage j
Vj+1,
yj+1

Can replace reboiler with direct

steam heating (S).

TMB:
mostly H2O

CMB:
yS
CMO:

V + B = L + S
V yj+1

usually 0
+ B xB = L x j + S

B=L

bottoms Operating line equation:

B, xB
y = (L/V) x - (L/V) xB xint: x = xB

Ex.: Open steam distillation of MeOH/H 2O

1
Specifications:
xD = 0.9, xB = 0.07, zF = 0.5
0.9
Feed is a 2-phase mixture, 50% liq.
Total condenser, open steam, R = 0.8
1.
Find N and NF,opt.

3
4

0.6

y(MeOH)

3. Plot xB on x-axis

0.7

1. Draw y=x line

2. Plot xD and zF on y=x

L
1 V

6. Draw bottom op. line

(no calc. required)
7. Step off stages starting
at either end, using new
op. line as you cross their
intersection

zF

0.5

y=

0.3

0.1

xB0.1

All stages are on the

column (no partial
reboiler).
N = 6 NF,opt =
4

0.2

xD

4. Draw feed line, slope = q/(q-1)0.4

5. Draw top op. line, slope = L/V

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

x(MeOH)

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Column internals
Sieve tray

Also called a perforated tray

Simple, cheap, easy to clean
Good for feeds that contain suspended solids
Poor turndown performance (low efficiency when operated below
designed flow rate);
prone to weeping

Other types of trays

Valve tray

Some valves close when vapor

velocity drops, keeping vapor flow
rate constant
Better turndown performance
Slightly more expensive, and harder
to clean than sieve tray

Bubble cap tray

Excellent contact between vapor

and liquid
Risers around holes prevent
weeping
Good performance at high and low
liquid flow rates

Downcomers
Dual-flow tray (no downcomer)
Both liquid and vapor pass through holes
Narrow operating range

Cross-flow tray (single pass)

er
om s
c
wn side
o
l d tes
a
tic rna
r
ve l t e
a

In large diameter columns, use multipass trays to reduce liquid loading in

downcomers
Dual-pass tray

Tray efficiency

nt
e
i
c
ffi ss r
e
in ma sfe
n
tra

e
iv t
ss en
ce m
ex rain
t
en

efficiency

design
point

flooding

weeping/d
umping

vapor flow rate

Weeping/dumping: when vapor flow rate is too low, liquid drips

constantly/periodically through holes in sieve tray
Flooding: when vapor flow rate is too high, liquid on tray mixes
with liquid on tray above

Column distillation videos

Normal column operation:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QQgtcNzW9N
w&NR=1
Flooding:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHOlFleAkNE
Weeping:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tRRxBCSuz48

Column flooding

1. jet flood (due to entrainment)

3. insufficient downcomer clearan

2. lack of downcomer seal

weir height above downcome

vapor flow rate too high
liquid backs up downcomer
weir height below downcomer
vapor flows up downcomer
ensure bottom edge of downcomer is 12 below top edge

Column sizing
1. Calculate vapor flood velocity, uflood (ft/s)
0.2

uflood

Csb,f

20

L V
V

where Csb,f is the capacity factor, from empirical correlation with flow
parameter, FP

WL
FP
WV

V
L

where WL and WV are the mass flow rates of liquid and vapor,
respectively

2. Determine net area required for vapor flow, Anet, based

on operating vapor velocity, uop, ft/s

uop 0.75uflood

V MWV

3600V Anet

where V is molar vapor flow rate and MWV is average molecular weight

Tray spacing

Column sizing, cont.

Relationship between net area for vapor flow, Anet, in ft2,
and column diameter, D, in ft:

D2
Anet
4

where is the fraction of the cross-sectional area available for vapor

flow (i.e., not occupied by the downcomer)

The required column diameter, D, in ft, is also:

D

4V MWV

3600V uop

4V
RT

3600uop P

uired column diameter changes where the mass balance changes.

build column in sections, with optimum diameter for each section, or
build column with single diameter:
if feed is saturated liquid, design for the bottom
if feed is saturated vapor, design for the top
balance section diameters (2-enthalpy feed, intermediate condenser/reb

Packed columns
structured
packing:

random
packing:

larger surface area, for better contact between liquid and vapor
preferred for column diameters < 2.5
packing is considerably more expensive than trays
change in vapor/liquid composition is continuous (unlike staged column)
analysis like a staged column: HETP (= Height Equivalent to a Theoretical
Plate/Tray)
packing height required = no. equil. stages x HETP