Chapter 4

Tissues,
Glands, and
Membranes

Simple Columnar Epithelium

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Tissues and Histology

Tissues are collections of similar cells and
the extracellular matrix surrounding them
Histology is the study of tissues
The four primary tissue types are
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue

Embryonic Tissue
Primary tissue types are derived from the
embryonic germ layers
Endoderm
Forms the lining of the digestive tract and its
derivatives

Mesoderm
Forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and blood
vessels

Ectoderm
Forms the outermost layer of skin and the nervous
system

Gives rise to all tissues of the body

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue
Covers surfaces
Has little extracellular material
Usually has a basement membrane
Has no blood vessels

Epithelial cells
Have a free, or apical, surface (not attached to
other cells)
A lateral surface (attached to other cells)
A basal surface (attached to the basement
membrane)

Fig. 4.1

Epithelial Tissue Functions

1. Protecting underlying structures
Example: outer layer of skin and oral mucosa

2. Acting as barriers
Example: outer layer of skin

3. Permitting the passage of substances

Example: epithelium in the lungs

4. Secreting substances
Example: mucous glands and sweat glands

5. Absorbing substances
Example: epithelial cells of the intestine

Epithelial Tissue Classification

Epithelia are classified according to the number
of cell layers and the shape of the cells
Cell layers

Simple epithelium has one layer of cells

Stratified epithelium has more than one cell layer
Pseudostratified epithelium has one layer, but appears
to have two or more layers
Transitional epithelium is stratified epithelium that can
be greatly stretched

Cell shape

Squamous are flat and thin

Cuboidal are cubelike
Columnar are tall and thin

Tab. 4.1a

Tab. 4.1b

Tab. 4.1c

Tab. 4.1d

Tab. 4.2a

Tab. 4.2b

Tab. 4.2c

Tab. 4.2d

Epithelial Tissue
Structural and Functional Relationships
Cell Layers and Cell Shapes
Simple epithelium is involved with

Diffusion
Secretion
Absorption

Stratified epithelium serves a protective role

Squamous cells function in

Diffusion
Filtration

Cuboidal or columnar cells, which contain cellular

organelles

Secrete
Absorb

Epithelial Tissue
Structural and Functional Relationships
Structural and Functional Relationships
Free Cell Surfaces

A smooth, free surface reduces friction

Example: Lining of blood vessels

Microvilli are cylindrical extensions of the cell

membrane that increase surface area (cells
involved in absorption of secretion)
Example: Lining of the small intestines

Cilia propel materials over the cell surface

Example: Lining of the nasal cavity and trachea

Epithelial Tissue
Structural and Functional Relationships
Cell connections
Tight junctions bind adjacent
cells together and form a
permeability barrier
Desmosomes mechanically
bind cells together
Hemidesmosomes
mechanically bind cells to the
basement membrane
Gap junctions allow
intercellular communication

Fig. 4.2

Epithelial Tissue Glands

A gland is a single cell or a multicellular
structure that secretes
Endocrine glands do not have ducts

Secrete hormones directly into the blood

Exocrine glands have ducts

Secretions are released onto a surface or into

a cavity
Sweat glands and mammary glands

Classified by
Structure
How products leave the cell

Epithelial Tissue Glands

Structure of Exocrine Glands

Simple: have one duct

Compound: have ducts that branch repeatedly
Tubules: ducts end in small tubes
Acini: ducts end in saclike structures
Alveoli: ducts end in hollow sacs

Fig. 4.3

Epithelial Tissue Glands

Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types
Merocrine no loss of cellular material (Ex. sweat glands)
Apocrine part of the cell pinches off (Ex. mammary
glands)
Holocrine entire cell is shed (Ex. sebaceous glands)

Fig. 4.4

Connective Tissue

Consist of cells seperated from each other by

abundant extracellular matrix
Functions
1. Enclosing and separating
2. Connecting tissues to one another (Ex. Ligaments
and Tendons)
3. Supporting and moving (Ex. Bones and cartilage)
4. Storing (Ex. Adipose tissue and Bones)
5. Cushioning and insulating (Ex. Adipose tissue)
6. Transporting (Ex. Blood)
7. Protecting (Ex. Blood and Bones)

Connective Tissue Cells

Specialized cells of various connective

tissues produce the extra cellular matrix
End in suffixes that identify the cell functions

Blast (germ) cells form the matrix

Cyte (cell) cells maintain it
Clast (break) cells break it down

Connective Tissue

Extracellular matrix contains

Protein fibers

Collagen fibers are flexible but resist

stretching
Reticular fibers form a fiber network
Elastic fibers recoil

Ground substance

Fluid

Proteoglycans in ground substance hold

water, enabling connective tissues to return to
their original shape after being compressed

Connective Tissue Classification

Mesenchyme:
embryonic connective
tissue that gives rise to six
major categories of
connective tissue

Connective Tissue Classification

Loose, or areolar, connective tissue is the loose
packing material of the body
Fills the spaces between organs
Holds organs in place

Adipose tissue (fat)

Stores energy
Pads and protects parts of the body
Acts as a thermal insulator

Dense connective tissue consists of a matrix

containing densely packed fibers
Collagen fibers (Ex. tendons, ligaments, and dermis of
the skin)
Elastic fibers (Ex. elastic ligaments and in the walls of
arteries)

Connective Tissue Classification

Cartilage provides support
Hyaline cartilage (Ex. covers ends of bones and forms
costal cartilages)
Fibrocartilage (Ex. disks between vertebrae)
Elastic cartilage (Ex. external ear)

Bone has a mineralized matrix

forms most of the skeleton of the body
Compact bone has more matrix than spaces
Cancellous bone has more spaces then matrix

Blood has a liquid matrix

Found in blood vessels
Produced in hemopoietic tissue (red bone marrow)

Tab. 4.4

Tab. 4.5a

Tab. 4.5b

Tab. 4.5c

Tab. 4.5d

Tab. 4.6a

Tab. 4.6b

Tab. 4.7a

Tab. 4.7b

Tab. 4.7c

Tab. 4.8

Tab. 4.9

Muscle Tissue
Specialized to contract, or shorten, making movement
possible
Length of muscle cells is greater than the diameter
Sometimes called muscle fibers because they often resemble tiny threads

Three types of muscle tissue

Skeletal

Meat of animals
Constitutes ~40% of a persons body weight
Attaches to the skeleton and allows for movement
Voluntary, multinucleated, and striated (banded)

Cardiac
Muscle of the heart
Connected to one another by intercalated disks (contain gap junctions)
Involuntary, striated, and usually have one nucleus per cell

Smooth
Forms the walls of hollow organs (except the heart) and also is found
in the skin and the eyes
Involuntary, not striated, and have a single nucleus

Tab.
4.10a

Tab.
4.10b

Tab.
4.10c

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is specialized to conduct
action potentials (electrical signals)
Neurons conduct action potentials
Neuroglia support the neurons

Tab. 4.11

Membranes
Mucous membranes line cavities that open to the
outside of the body
Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
Contain glands
Secrete mucus

Serous membranes line trunk cavities that do not

open to the outside of the body
pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities
Do Not contain glands
Secrete serous fluid

Synovial membranes line freely movable joints

Fig. 4.5

Inflammation
Function of the inflammatory response is to
isolate and destroy harmful agents
Five symptoms

Redness
Heat
Swelling
Pain
Disturbance of function

Chronic inflammation results when the agent

causing injury is not removed or something else
interferes with the healing process

Fig. 4.6

Tissue Repair
Tissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for
dead cells
Labile cells divide throughout life and can undergo
regeneration
Stable cells do not ordinarily divide but can
regenerate if necessary
Permanent cells have little or no ability to divide
If killed, repair is by replacement

Tissue repair involves

Clot formation
Inflammation
Formation of granulation tissue
Regeneration or replacement of tissues
In severe wounds, wound contracture can occur

Fig. 4.7

Tissues and Aging

Cells divide more slowly as people age
Injuries heal more slowly
Extracellular matrix containing collagen
and elastic fibers becomes less flexible
and less elastic
Consequently
Skin wrinkles
Elasticity in arteries is reduced
Bones break more easily