INTRODUCING

GEOLOGICAL
MAPS

HORIZONTAL BEDS ON MAPS

HORIZONTAL BEDS ON MAPS

True thickness only seen in vertical cliffs/quarry faces

True
thickness
of bed in
vertical
section

HORIZONTAL BEDS ON MAPS

HORIZONTAL BEDS ON MAPS

Outcrop width will be apparent thickness

Outcrop width will increase with decreasing angle
of slope
In a valley, outcrop pattern will V upstream
The oldest beds will outcrop at the bottom of
valleys, the youngest on top of hills

HORIZONTAL BEDS ON MAPS

HORIZONTAL BEDS ON MAPS

Draw simple annotated diagrams to illustrate how you
would recognize horizontal beds on geological maps
Remember to highlight the importance of the relationship
between outcrop pattern & contours!

HORIZONTAL BEDS ON MAPS

Time for your first Geological mapwork problem!

1A Bennison map 1 p6/7
Complete map using outcrop pattern
1B Bolton map1 p5/6
Complete map using borehole data
You will need to draw a stratigraphic log first

The BGS Moreton-in-Marsh sheet

"Where geological boundaries between strata are

parallel to the topographic contours, the strata must be
horizontal.
"Outcrops of horizontal or gently inclined strata usually
form prominent V-shaped patterns that point upstream
in valleys.
"For horizontal or gently dipping strata of constant
thickness, narrow strip-like outcrops occur on steep
slopes and wide outcrops occur on gentle slopes".
"An outlier is an outcrop of rocks separated from the
main outcrop by the process of erosion and surrounded
entirely by older strata (hill)
An inlier is an outcrop of rock that has been exposed by
erosion of younger strata in such a way that it is entirely
surrounded by the younger strata remaining" (valley)

Inliers and Outliers

Inlier-an area of older rock completely surrounded by younger rocks

Outlier-an area of younger rock completely surrounded by older rocks

Inliers & Outliers

Draw simple annotated diagrams to illustrate the

difference between inliers & outliers

12

Strike and Dip

DIP AND STRIKE

Dip = Angle between horizontal and the maximum slope of a

bedding plane
To measure dip angle
Clinometer
To measure dip / strike direction
Compass

Dipping 60 East
Strike North-South

15

Strike and dip

17

True and Apparent Dip

'True Dip is the greatest' - anything less is Apparent Dip

True dip = parallel to the gable end & at 90 to the ridge.
Strike direction = parallel to the ridge.

Apparent Dip
True dip 45

Beds
apparently
horizontal

A dip amount which is less than the true dip. Cliff sections
commonly show apparent dip. The direction of dip and strike will
also be incorrect if apparent dip is measured.
Always assess outcrops in the field carefully and ensure that the
true dip is recorded.

STRIKE

Direction of a horizontal line on a dipping bedding plane

ie at 90 to dip direction, measured in degrees
Strike lines are structural contours
Outcrop patterns tend to follow strike lines at 90' to dip
Nb Always record strike direction clockwise from dip direction
(right hand rule Thumb points in dip direction heel of hand
in strike direction)

Dipping 60 East
Strike North

Dip and Strike 3

Beds dip
South at 58

Summerleaze Beach, Bude

Beds dip
North at
15

Strike direction
East-West

Recording Dip & Strike

Strike and dip symbols are drawn on a geologic map for

each outcrop with dipping or tilted beds
The long line of the symbol is aligned with the compass
direction of the strike
The small tick, which is always drawn perpendicular to the
strike line, is put on one side or the other, depending on
which of the two directions the beds actually dip
The angle of dip is
given as a number
next to the symbol
on the map
Beds with vertical
dip require a
unique symbol

Recording Dip & Strike

Geologic Cross
Section
A geologic cross
section represents a
vertical slice through
a portion of Earth
On a geologic map,
cross sections are
constructed by
projecting the dip of
rock units into the
subsurface

Dip & Strike

Dip =
Instrument used to measure angle of dip
=
Strike
=
Instrument used to measure strike & dip direction =
True dip =
Only seen when looking in ______ direction
Apparent Dip
=
Will be horizontal if looking in ___ direction
Copy the diagram

What is the
relationship between
strike direction &
outcrop boundaries
on geological maps?

25

Outcrop Patterns

1.
2.
3.

Geological maps show

a) Topography
b) Geology
Where you can see rocks = Exposure
Where you would see rocks if superficial
(unconsolidated) deposits were removed
= Outcrop
Intersection of ground surface and geological
boundaries = Outcrop Pattern
Depends on:
Thickness of rock units
Orientation (dip) of geological surface
Shape of ground surface (Topography)

Outcrop Patterns

Exposure
Outcrop
Outcrop Pattern

=
=
=

1 Thickness of rock units

Thick rock unit

= Wide Outcrop

Thin rock unit

= Narrow outcrop

1 Thickness of rock units

Thickness measured at 90' to surface = True thickness
Eg Horizontal bed outcrop in vertical cliff/quarry face
or the outcrop of a Vertical bed
Apparent thickness = Thickness measured vertically
through layer, regardless of dip
V = Vertical thickness
D = Angle of dip
W = Width of outcrop
True thickness in the field:
T = Vx cos D
True thickness on a map:
T = Wx sin D
Bed thickness can also be measured from the cross
sections and the geological column BUT only if drawn
with equal vertical and horizontal scales

2 Orientation (dip) of geological surface

a

d
d

Vertical beds: outcrop width = true thickness (a)

Steeper the dip: narrower the outcrop (b)
Gentler the dip: wider the outcrop (c and d)

3 Slope of ground surface

a
f
b

The shape of the land (topography) has a major influence on

outcrop pattern
Slope parallel to dip = wide outcrops (b & d)
Slope at right angles to dip = narrower outcrops (a,c,e,f)
However, luckily for you, AS Geology exam maps usually assume
a horizontal lands surface to keep things simple!

Outcrop Patterns

1.
2.
3.

Draw simple sketches to explain how the following

affect outcrop patterns:
Thickness of rock units
Orientation (dip) of geological surface
Slope of ground surface (Topography)

The Principle of Superposition

If one bed lies on top of another, the one on top is the
younger, assuming they have not been overturned
Check for way-up criteria
such as graded bedding
or mudcracks

Beds get
younger in
direction of dip

Dipping beds and Outcrop Patterns

The outcrop
pattern of dipping
beds cuts across
the contours on
maps (shown as
dashed lines)
Outcrop pattern V
points in direction of
dip
But beware of
horizontal beds!

Beds dip N (upstream)

V-pattern points upstream
in the valley

Beds dip S (downstream) Vpattern points downstream

in the valley

35

V-rule model

Relationship between dip and outcrop pattern

Influence of slope

Gentle slope
Steep slope
Horizontal land

- wide outcrop
- narrow outcrop
Horizontal beds:
- theoretically
infinite width
Outcrop pattern will be parallel to topographic contours
In a valley
Outcrop 'V' points upstream
Dipping beds
Gentle dip
- wide outcrop
Steep dip
- narrow outcrop
In a valley
- outcrop 'V' points in
direction of dip
Vertical beds
Straight narrow outcrop
(width = true thickness)
Outcrop pattern has no relationship to contours

Outcrop Patterns

Draw simple sketches to illustrate:

How the relative age of beds can be established
from the dip direction.
How the dip direction can be determined in a valley
Explain how you could distinguish between the V
shaped outcrop patterns in a valley caused by
horizontal & dipping beds
How would you identify vertical beds on a geological
map?

A clinometer can also

be used to calculate
height by taking the
angle reading from the
clinometer and using
the formula;
Height = H + D x Tan(A)
H=Height of Clinometer
to floor base
D=Distance of
Clinometer to object
A=Angle taken from
Clinometer Reading
39