Human Anatomy

Chapter 8
Axial & Appendicular Skeleton

1-1

Skeletal System
Bones of skeleton form internal framework to support
soft tissues, protect vital organs, bear bodys weight, &
help us move
Typically, 206 bones in adult skeleton
Larger number of bones present at birth; total number
decreases with growth & maturity as some separate
bones fuse

7-2

Components of the
Skeleton: Bone
Surface features that characterize each bone
Markings

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General
Structure

Anatomic Term

Articulating
surfaces

Condyle

Large, smooth, rounded articulating oval structure

Facet

Small, flat, shallow articulating surface

Head

Prominent, rounded epiphysis

Trochlea

Smooth, grooved, pulley-like articular process

Alveolus
(pl., alveoli)

Deep pit or socket in the maxillae or mandible

Fossa
(pl., fossae)

Flattened or shallow depression

Sulcus

Narrow groove

Depressions

Projections
where muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach
Smooth areas
sites of articulation between bones
Depressions, grooves, and openings
where blood vessels and nerves travel

Projections for
tendon
and ligament
attachment

Facet
Crest
Fossa

Spine

Line

Openings
and spaces

Foramen

Description

Crest

Narrow, prominent, ridgelike projection

Epicondyle

Projection adjacent to a condyle

Line

Low ridge

Process

Any marked bony prominence

Ramus (pl., rami)

Angular extension of a bone relative to the rest of the structure

Spine

Pointed, slender process

Trochanter

Massive, rough projection found only on the femur

Tubercle

Small, round projection

Tuberosity

Large, rough projection

Canal

Passageway through a bone

Fissure

Narrow, slitlike opening through a bone

Foramen
(pl., foramina)

Rounded passageway through a bone

Meatus

Passageway through a bone

Sinus

Cavity or hollow space in a bone

Ramus
Pelvis

Trochanter

Head

Tubercle
Head

Sulcus

Sinus

Tuberosity

Fissure

Meatus
Process

Canal

Foramen

Ramus

Ramus

Epicondyle

Bone Markings Fig. 8.1

Femur

Epicondyle
Trochlea

Skull, anterior view

Condyle

Fossa

Foramen

Alveolus

Skull, sagittal view

Humerus

Skull

Skull

8 Cranial bones form cranial cavity

Enclose & protect brain

5, 6

4
3

7, 8

8 cranial bones
Each Friday Our Son Plays Poker Till
Tuesday

7-5

Skull

Facial bones (14 bones) form bones of face

Protect & provide support for entrances to

digestive and respiratory systems

*
*
*

*
*

= facial bones: nasal (2), maxillae (2), zygomatic (2), mandible, lacrimal (2) palatine (2), inferior
6
nasal conchae

Skeletal System
Axial skeleton:

Skull, hyoid

Vertebral column

Thoracic cage

Appendicular skeleton:
Upper & lower limbs

Bones that hold limbs to trunk of body

7-7

Sutures of Skull

Coronal:

Sagittal:

Immovable fibrous joints

Sutures of Skull

Lambdoidal
Squamosal

Zygomatic process of
temporal bone;
Temporal process of
zygomatic bone

Cranial Bones
Frontal
Parietals:

(paries = wall)

Temporals:
Zygomatic process articulates with temporal process of
zygomatic bone
Zygomatic arch: zygomatic process of temporal bone &
temporal process of zygomatic bone
Petrous portion of temporal houses internal &
middle ear

7-10

Cranial Bones
Occipital
Foramen magnum (large hole)

Sphenoid:
Sphenoid bone

7-11

Crista ga

12

Sella turcica

13

Looking downward from top of skull

*
Insert
Fig. 7.9 superior view of skull
*

14

Maxillae
articulate with every bone of face except mandible;
form floor of orbits

maxilla supports upper teeth

15

Mandible
only movable skull bone (except auditory ossicles)

16

Zygomatic:
cheekbones

17

Palatine:

Cleft palate: failure of palatine process

of maxillary bones to unite weeks 10-12
of development

18

Vomer

Deviated septum (from midline of

nose) at junction of bone with
cartilage

19

Facial Bones
Nasal bones
Lacrimal: smallest bones of face
Lacrimal duct = tear duct (lacrima = teardrop)

Inferior nasal conchae: scroll-like

7-20

Cavities ofCranial
Skull
largest

Smaller cavities:
orbits (eye sockets),
oral cavity (mouth),
nasal cavity,
& paranasal sinuses

FIG. 7.3

21

Paranasal Sinuses
Mucous membrane lining
humidifies & warms inhaled
air

Continuous with nasal cavity

22

 Formed by 7 bones

Orbital complex

Frontal
Lacrimal
Zygomatic
Maxilla
Palatine
Ethmoid
Sphenoid

23

Auditory Ossicles
Three tiny ear bones found within
petrous region of each temporal bone:

Malleus , Incus, Stapes

24

Fontanelles

Fibrous dense CT membranes

Soft spots on a babys head

Close by 15 months of age

25

Fontanels

Allow fetal skull to modify

Permits rapid growth of brain

Newborns frequently have coneshaped head due to this temporary

deformation

26

Hyoid Bone

Slender, curved bone

Does not articulate with any other

bone in skeleton

Suspended from temporal bones by ligaments &

muscles
Supports tongue, serves as site of attachment for
tongue and muscles of neck & pharynx

27

Vertebral Column
Functions:

Supports head
Point of attachment
Helps transfer axial skeletal weight
Provides vertical support

7-28

Vertebral
Column

Cervical
C1 C 7

26 (33 total) bones:

7 cervical

12 thoracic

Thoracic
T1 T12

5 lumbar

5 sacral

4 coccygeal

Lumbar

L1 L 5

Sacrum
S1 S5 fused
Coccyx
Co1 Co4 fused

29

Normal curves
Cervical & lumbar
Thoracic & sacral
Importance

Increase strength
Help maintain balance
Absorb shock
Help protect column
7-30

Abnormal Curves
Kyphosis: exaggerated thoracic curvature directed
posteriorly, producing hunchback
Osteoporosis, osteomalacia, heavy weight lifting during adolescence

Lordosis: exaggerated lumbar curvature, (swayback);

protrusion of abdomen & buttocks
Obesity, pregnancy, poor posture, rickets

Scoliosis: abnormal lateral curvature that sometimes results

during development when both vertebral arch & body do not
form, or form incompletely, on one side of vertebrae
Most common spinal curvature deformity

7-31

Cervical
vertebrae:
atlas

Articulates

32

Cervical
vertebrae: axis

distinctive feature of axis

Spinous process
33

articulation of atlas & axis rotation to shake head & say

no
34

Vertebral (neural) arch

Processes: transverse & spinous

Extends posteriorly from body

Surrounds spinal cord

Collectively forms vertebral canal

containing spinal cord along length of
column

Vertebral foramen: space between vertebral arch

& body

Contains spinal cord, adipose & areolar CT, BV

Body

Thick, disc-shaped, weight-bearing part

Superior & inferior surfaces attach intervertebral

discs

35

Typical Vertebra

Vertebrae

Cervical

Thoracic

Lumbar

Thoracic & Lumbar vertebrae

Thoracic
Larger, stronger than cervical
Distinguishing feature:

Lumbar

Largest, strongest,
support more body weight

7-38

Lumbar vertebrae

39

Intervertebral discs
Between adjacent vertebrae

Anulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
7-40

Herniated disc: inner nucleus

pulposus protrudes into outer
anulus fibrosus, may pinch nerve
41

Sacral canal: spinal cord

Sacral hiatus: spinal cord ends

Coccyx
fused
42

Thoracic Cage
Consists of: thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, ribs
laterally, & sternum anteriorly
Encloses & protects organs in thoracic cavity & upper
abdominal cavity
Provides support
Sternum (breastbone)
Body
Manubrium
Xiphoid process
Cartilagenous, ossifies after age 40
7-43

Ribs
Both males & females 12 pairs
Ribs 1-7
Direct anterior attachment to sternum by strip of hyaline cartilage (costal
cartilage)

Ribs 812
Their costal cartilages do not attach directly to sternum
Costal cartilages of ribs 810 fuse to the costal cartilage of rib immediately
above it (articulates indirectly with sternum)

Last two pairs of false ribs (ribs 11 and 12)

7-44

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Manubrium *
Suprasternal notch
Clavicular notch

Costal notch
2
Sternal angle
3

True ribs
(17)

Sternum

Body *

Costal notch

5
6

Xiphoid process

11

8
False ribs
(812)

T12
12

9
10
11

L1
Floating ribs
(1112)

Costal cartilages

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Head
Crest

Ribs

Articular facets
for vertebral bodies

Neck
Tubercle

Superior
Inferior

Costal
facet

Articular facet
for transverse process

Junction
with costal
cartilage

Costal groove

Costal
demifacet
for rib 6

Tubercle
Neck
Head
T6

Shaft
(a) Rib

Head

(b) Superior view

T8
Neck

Tubercle of
rib articulating
with vertebral
transverse
process

Angle

T9

T10

aft
Sh

(c) Lateral view

Costal facet for rib 6

Angle

ri
of

b9

(c): The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Christine Eckel, photographer

Rib 6

Skeletal System
Axial skeleton:

Skull, hyoid

Vertebral column

Thoracic cage

Appendicular skeleton:
Upper & lower limbs

Bones that hold limbs to trunk of body

7-47

Pectoral girdle: clavicle (collarbone)

manubrium of
sternum

acromion of
scapula

S-shaped bone with convex & concave curves

48

Pectoral girdle: scapula (shoulder blade)

bump at top of
shoulder

humerus

49

palpate spine at
your back

50

Acromion

head
articulates
with glenoid
cavity of
scapula
Humerus:
-medial, lateral epicondyles
-capitulum articulates with
radius;
-trochlea articulates with ulna

palpate both sides of your elbow;

bumps are the medial and lateral
epicondyles

51

Anatomical neck

Groove marking location of

former epiphyseal plate

Surgical neck

Narrowing of bone

Shaft

olecranon fossa
articulates with
olecranon of ulna
52

Supination:
movement of
forearm so palm of
hand is turned
anteriorly
Hold arm so that
you see your
forearm
Radius is on lateral
(thumb) side; ulna
is on medial side

Pronation:
movement of
forearm so palm of
hand is turned
posteriorly
Palpate near elbow:
feel radius cross
over ulna

polle
x

53

radius: flat, disc-shaped

head
radial tuberosity
olecranon of ulna
(bump at elbow)
trochlear notch of ulna

styloid process of
radius

54

styloid process of
ulna

Carpals
Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform
trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
Sally Left The Party To Take Cathy Home.
Sam Likes To Push The Toy Car Hard.
Some Lovers Try Positions That They Cant Handle
Sam Lowered.

8-55

56

Os Coxae
Hip bone or innominate bone
Each formed from three separate bones:
ilium, ischium, & pubis
Fuse by age 13-15

Each articulates posteriorly

Join

Ileum

Ischium

Pubis

8-57

Pelvis

Protects and supports viscera in inferior part of ventral body cavity

*
*
*

*
articulates with
head of femur;

fusion of 3
bones

Adult pelvis composed of four bones:

sacrum, coccyx, and right & left os coxae

58

ischial tuberosity =
sit bones

59

to sacrum at
sacroiliac joint

60

subpubic angle

notice difference in width

61

62

Lower Limb
30 bones

Femur
Patella
Tibia & fibula
7 tarsal bones (ankle & proximal foot)
5 metatarsal bones (foot arch)
14 phalanges

8-63

femoral head
greater & lesser
trochanter

medial condyle
& epicondyle
lateral condyle
& epicondyle

64

Patella (kneecap)

Patella: a sesamoid
bone

65

Tibia:
lateral & medial
condyle
tibial tuberosity

anterior crest or
margin

medial malleolus
medial malleolus

66

Fibula

lateral malleolus

67

Tarsals
7 tarsal bones:
calcaneus, talus,
cuboid, navicular
and 3 cuniform
bones

Metatarsals: form
arch;
Numbered Roman
numerals I-V

68

Arches of the Foot

Sole of foot does not rest flat on the ground

8-69

Three Arches of the Foot

Medial longitudinal arch extends from heel to big toe
Formed from calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuneiform bones, metatarsals I-III
Lateral longitudinal arch is not as high as medial longitudinal arch
Formed from calcaneus, cuboid, metatarsals IV-V
Transverse arch runs perpendicular to longitudinal arches
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Metatarsal bones
Intermediate
cuneiform

Lateral cuneiform
Cuboid

Medial
cuneiform
Location of medial
longitudinal arch

Transverse arch

Right foot, distal row of tarsals and metatarsals

Foot print of right foot

Location
of lateral
longitudinal
arch

Flat
height
of Inc.
medial
longitudinal
arch decreased
Copyright feet:
The McGraw-Hill
Companies,
Permission required
for reproduction or display.
Cuboid
Calcaneus

Right foot, lateral view

Lateral longitudinal arch

Fifth metatarsal

Aging of the Appendicular Skeleton

Skeletal mass & density
Erosion & porosity
Bones become more brittle & susceptible to fracture
Articulating surfaces deteriorate
Changes begin in childhood & continue throughout life

8-72