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Types of Waves
Wave speed
Longitudinal Waves
Transmission of Waves
Transverse Waves
Reflection
Surface Waves
Refraction
Frequency
Superposition Principle
Wavelength
Interference
Period
Diffraction
Amplitude
pulse
Types of Waves
A mechanical wave is just a disturbance that propagate through a
medium. The medium could be air, water, a spring, the Earth, or even
people. A medium is any material through which a wave travels.
Mechanical wave examples: sound; water waves; a pulse traveling on
a spring; earthquakes; a people wave in a football stadium.
An electromagnetic wave is simply light of a visible or invisible
wavelength. Oscillating intertwined electric and magnetic fields
comprise light. Light can travel without mediumsuper, duper fast.
A matter wave is a term used to describe particles like electrons that
display wavelike properties. It is an important concept in quantum
mechanics.
A gravity wave is a ripple in the fabric of spacetime itself. They are
predicted by Einsteins theroy of relativity, but theyre very difficult
to detect.
Longitudinal Parallel
Transverse Perpendicular
Surface Combo
Longitudinal Waves
A whole bunch of kids are waiting in line to get their picture taken
with Godzilla. The bully in back pushes the kid in front of him, who
bumps into the next kid, and so on down the line. A longitudinal
pulse is sent through the line of kids. Its longitudinal because as
each kid gets bumped, he moves forwards, then backwards (red
arrow), parallel to the direction of the pulse. The location of the
pulse is the point where two kids are being compressed together.
The next slide shows how the pulse progresses
through the line.
pulse direction
Longitinal
Waves (cont.)
Ouch
!
C = Compression (high
kid density)
Ouch
!
R C
R = Rarefaction (low
kid density)
Ouch
!
R C
Transverse Waves
Transverse Waves
(cont.)
Surface Waves
Below the surface fluids can typically only transmit longitudinal
waves, since the attraction between neighboring molecules is not
as strong as in a fluid. At the surface of a lake, water molecules
(white dots) move in circular paths, which are partly longitudinal
and partly transverse. The molecules are offset, though: when
one is at the top of the circle, the one in front of it is near the top.
As in any wave, the particles of the medium do not move along
with the wave. The water molecules complete a circle each time
a crest passes by. Animation
wave direction
Breaking Waves
Seismic Waves
Seismic waves use Earth itself as their medium. Earthquakes produce
them and so does a nation when it carries out an underground nuclear
test. (Other countries can detect them.) Seismic waves can be
longitudinal, transverse, or surface waves. P and S type waves are
called body waves, since they are not confined to the surface. Rayleigh
waves do most of the shaking during a quake.
Name
Type
Info
P Wave
Longitudinal
S wave
Transverse
Rayleigh W
ave
Surface
Love Wave
Surface
Wave Characteristics
Amplitude (A) Maximum displacement of particle of the medium
from its equilibrium point. The bigger the amplitude, the more energy
the wave carries.
Wavelength () Distance from crest (max positive displacement) to
crest; same as distance from trough (max negative displacement) to
trough.
Period (T) Time it takes consecutive crests (or troughs) to pass a
given point, i.e., the time required for one full cycle of the wave to pass
by. Period is the reciprocal of frequency: T = 1 / f.
Frequency (f ) The number of cycles passing by in a given time. The
SI unit for frequency is the Hertz (Hz), which is one cycle per second.
Wave speed (v) How fast the wave is moving (the disturbance itself,
not how fast the individual particles are moving, which constantly
varies). Speed depends on the medium. Well prove that v = f.
Answer:
v = f
Harmonic Waves
Imagine a whole bunch of equal masses hanging from identical springs.
If the masses are set to bobbing at staggered time intervals, a snapshot
of the masses forms a transverse wave. Each mass undergoes simple
harmonic motion, and the period of each is the same. If the release of
the masses is timed so that the masses form a sinusoid at each point in
time, the wave is called harmonic. Right now, m4 is peaking. A little
later m4 will be lower and m3 will be peaking. The masses (the
particles of the medium) bob up and down but do not move
horizontally, but the wave does move horizontally.
m3
m1
m2
m4
m8
m5
m6
m7
m9
m10
wave direction
Q
wave direction
Q
wave direction
2 F sin ( / 2) = m v 2 / r
2 F ( / 2) = m v 2 / r
F r / m = v2
F s / m = v2
(since s = r )
(continued)
/2
F
v (rope)
(cont.)
If the rope is uniform density, then the mass per unit length is a
constant. Well call this constant . Thus, = m / s. From the last
slide we have:
v2 = F s / m = F /
v =
This shows that waves travel faster in materials that are stiff
(high tension) and light weight. Unit check: [N / (kg / m)]
= [N m / kg ] = [(kg m / s 2) m / kg ] = [m 2 / s 2] = m / s.
m
/2
F
/2
F
v (rope)
Reflection of Waves
Whenever a wave encounters different medium, some
of the wave may be reflected back, and some of the
wave penetrate and be absorbed or transmitted through
the new medium. Light waves reflects off of objects.
If it didnt, we would only be able to see objects that
emitted their own light. We see the moon because its
reflecting sunlight. Sound waves also reflect off of
objects, creating echoes. Water waves, seismic waves,
and waves traveling on a rope all can reflect.
Animation
E A
m2
transmitted pulse
Back to Animation
transmitted pulse
Back to Animation
Refraction
Weve seen that when a wave reaches an interface (a change from
one medium to another), part of the wave can be transmitted, and
part can be reflected back. A rope is a 1-dimensional medium; in a
2-dimensional medium a transmitted wave can change direction.
This is refractionthe bending of a wave as it passes from one
medium to another. The most well know type of refraction is that
of light bending as it passes from air to glass or water, which well
study in detail in a unit on light.
As ocean waves approach the shore at an angle, the part of the
wave closer to shore begins to slow down because the water is
shallower. This causes refraction, and the waves bend so that it the
wave fronts (crests) come in nearly parallel with the shore. See pic
on next slide. Even though the medium (water) doesnt change,
one of its properties doesthe speed of the wave.
Superposition
Check out this animation to see what happens when two pulses
approach each other from opposite ends on a rope.
Superposition Animation
Note the following:
1. The waves pass through each other unaffected by their meeting.
2. As theyre passing through each other the waves combine to
create a changing waveform.
3. The displacement of the rope at any point in this combo wave
is the sum of the displacements of the displacements of the
original waves. In other words, we add amplitudes. This is
called superposition.
Constructive Interference
Waves are in phase. By superposition, red + blue = green. If red
and blue each have amplitude A,
then green has amplitude 2A.
Destructive Interference
Waves are out of phase. By
superposition, red and blue
completely cancel each other
out, if their amplitudes and
frequencies are the same.
Interference
Like force vectors, waves can work together or opposition.
Sometimes they can even do some of both at the same time.
Superposition applies even when the waves are not identical.
Interference Animation
Constructive interference occurs at a point when two waves
have displacements in the same direction. The amplitude of the
combo wave is larger either individual wave.
Destructive interference occurs at a point when two waves have
displacements in opposite directions. The amplitude of the combo
wave is smaller than that of the wave biggest wave.
Superposition can involve both constructive and destructive
interference at the same time (but at different points in the
medium).
Wave Interference
Diffraction
When waves bounce off a barrier, this is reflection. When waves
bend due to a change in the medium, this is refraction. When waves
change direction as they pass around a barrier or through a small
opening, this is diffraction. Refraction involves a change in wave
speed and wavelength; diffraction doesnt.
Diffraction of water happens as waves bend around a boat in a
harbor. This is different than the refraction of waves near shore
because the depth of water does not decrease around the boat like it
does near shore. Diffraction is most noticeable when the wavelength
is large compared to the obstacle or opening. Thus, no noticeable
diffraction may occur if the boat in the harbor is very big.
The sound waves from an owls hoot travel a greater distance in the
forest than a song birds call, because a low pitch owl hoot has a
longer wavelength than a high pitch songbird call, and the owls
waves are able to diffract around trees.
Pics on next slide
Diffraction Pics
When waves pass a barrier they curve around it slightly. When they
pass through a small opening, they spread out almost as if they had
come from a point source. These effects happen for any type of wave:
water; sound; light; seismic waves, etc.
Animations:
1st Harmonic
( The Fundamental )
2nd Harmonic
3rd Harmonic
4th Harmonic
Standing Waves
When waves on a rope hits a fixed end, it
reflects and is inverted. This reflected
waves then combine with oncoming
incident waves. At certain frequencies the
resulting superposition yields a standing
wave, in which some points on the rope
called nodes never move at all, and other
points called antinodes have an amplitude
twice as big as the original wave.
A rope of given length can support
standing waves of many different
frequencies, called harmonics, which are
named based on the number of antinodes.
continued
Animations:
Standing Waves
(cont.)
Resonance
Objects that oscillate or vibrate tend to do so at a particular frequency
called the natural frequency. For example, a pendulum will swing
back and forth at a certain frequency that only depends on its length,
and a mass on a spring will bob up in down at a frequency that
depends on the mass and the spring constant. It is possible physically
to grab hold of the pendulum or mass and force it to swing or bob at
any frequency, but if no one forces them, each will swing of bob at its
own natural frequency. If left alone,
friction will rob the masses of their
energy, and their amplitudes will
decay. If a periodic force, like an
occasional push, matches the period
of one of the masses, this is called
resonance, and the masss amplitude
M
will grow.
(continued)
m
Resonance Animation
Jane does
positive
work
x
F
Jane does
negative
work
x
F
Resonance
(cont.)
Resonance Question
Explain how you could get a 700 lb
wrecking ball swing with a large
amplitude only by pulling on it with a
scrawny piece of dental floss.
answer:
Wrecking
Ball
Credits
The following images were obtained for these websites:
Marvin the Martian
http://store.yahoo.com/rnrdist/warnerbrothers.html
Sand Scorpion
http://www.aps.org/meet/MAR00/baps/vpr/layy3-03-04.html
Credits
Wave movies: Dr. Ken Russel, Kettering University
http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos.html
Standing wave animated gifs: Tom Henderson, Glenbrook South High School
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/waves/U10L4b.html
Tacoma Narrows Bridge:
http://www.civeng.carleton.ca/Exhibits/Tacoma_Narrows/DSmith/fig06.gif