Fundamentals of Electricity Electronics

CENT-112: Fundamentals of
Electricity & Electronics
Dr. Van de Graaff (MIT Professor)

designed and built this generator as a
research tool in early atom-smashing
and high energy X-ray experiments.
This is the standard of excellence we
should aspire to.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Course Outline
Section 1: Fundamentals of Electricity &
Electronics
Section 2: Basic Circuits
Section 3: Motors, Generators, & Power
Distribution
Section 4: Advanced Electrical Circuits
Section 5: Electronic Communication & Data
Systems
2
Interest
The great end in life is not knowledge but
action. Take your knowledge and use it as
soon as you can.
Use technology as a blessing to mankind
and not as a curse. Einstein 1879-1955
Improvement ideas: tomsic@hawaii.edu
Website: http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/~tomsic
12 labs, 2 projects (audio amplifier & PS)
3 exams
3
Introduce Yourself
Where are you from?
How do you like Honolulu Community
College?
What experience do you have in
electronics?
What is something interesting about
yourself?
What do you want to learn in this class?
4
Section 1: Fundamentals of
Electricity & Electronics
Safety Precautions
Basic Electrical Terms and Circuits
Basic Measuring Instruments
Basic Electrical Circuit Materials
Energy
Sources of Electricity
A GOOD THING TO KEEP IN

MIND!
THE BEST TOOLS EVER

INVENTED HANDS!
SAFETY SHIELDS ARE EYE

INSURANCE!
SAFETY SHOES ARE NOT FOR

DEFEAT!
HEARING PROTECTION IS
FOR WINNERS!
10
Always check Electrical Circuits

Deenergized
Discharge capacitors.
Check Power Leads (T1-T3)
Check Capacitors discharged.
< 30VAC is deenergized.
11
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

Invisible Threat
1 touch can ruin this card.
Wear a wrist strap.
12
General Safety Rules

1. Do not work when you are tired or taking
medicine that makes you drowsy.
2. Do not work in poor light.
3. Do not work in damp areas or with wet or
damp clothing and shoes.
4. Use approved tools, equipment, & protective
devices.
5. Remove all metal items when working around
exposed circuits.
13
General Safety Rules Continued

6. Never assume that a circuit is off. Doublecheck it with an instrument that you are sure is
operational.
7. Buddy system is used at circuit breaker
supplying power if working on circuit.
8. Never override safety interlocks.
9. Keep all tools and test equipment in good
working condition.
10. Discharge capacitors.
14
General Safety Rules Continued

11. Do not remove grounds and do not use adapters
that defeat the equipment ground.
12. Use CO2 or halogenated-type fire extinguisher
to put out electrical fires. Water conducts
electricity! (i.e. galley fire in oven).
13. Store solvents and other chemicals in
appropriate areas. (i.e. fire personnel incident).
14. Do not work on unfamiliar circuits.
15. Do not cut corners or rush. No horseplay or
practical jokes in the labs (i.e. throwing caps,
meggering).
15
Shock Victim
Do not become part of the problem.
Use non-conductive belt and break free shock
victim.
Call for medical assistance. (911)
16
Review CPR
Check for response.

Have someone call 911.
Clear airway.
Look, listen and feel for breathing.
Give 2 full breaths.
15 compressions (1 and 2 and 3)
Continue till medical help arrives, you are
relieved or are too tired to continue.
17
Questions
Q1. Who is responsible for safety?

A1. Everybody is responsible for their safety.
Q2. What protects electronic circuits from ESD?
A2. ESD packaging & wrist straps.
Q3. What is the worst electrical shock you have
heard of or experienced?
A3. Various.
18
Scientific Notation
Prefix
Symbol
tera
giga
mega
kilo
basic unit
milli
micro
nano
pico
T
G
M
k
19
Decimal
1,000,000,000,000
Power of Ten
1012
109
106
103
1,000,000,000
1,000,000
1,000
1
n
p
.001
.000001
.000000001
.000000000001
103
106
109
1012
Ohms Law
Given:
E = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance
E
I
20
E=IR
I = E/R
R = E/I
Basic Electrical Terms

Definitions
Current (I): Flow of electrons past a point.
1A = 1 coulomb of charge flowing past a point
for 1 second. Unit of measure is amps.
Resistance (R): Opposition to the flow of
electrons. Unit of measure is ohms.
Voltage: (E): Force behind electrical flow.
Unit of measure is the volt.
21
Questions
Q4. Given a 1 Megohm resistor with a 120 volt
potential applied to it, what current will pass through
it?
A4. .12 milliamps
Q5. Can this current kill you if you touch it?
A5. No. .1 Amp for 1 second can be fatal.
Q6. How many students know CPR?
A6. It is a good thing to be qualified in CPR when
working on or near electrical circuits.
22
Questions Continued
Q7. Given a 1.5 Amp battery charger with a total circuit
resistance of 8 ohms, what supply voltage is generated?
A7. 12 volts
Q8. What amperage is present when you place the new
chip in your cellular phone?
A8. micro amps.
Q9. What amperage is present when you put leads on a
new car battery?
A9. milliamps
23
Definitions
Atomic Theory
Foundation for Solid State Devices
Atom - Smallest part of an element that
retains the characteristics of that element.
Molecule Smallest part of a compound.
Compound - 2 or more elements
chemically combined.
24
The Atom
Atom Parts:
Electrons: Negative part of an atom.
Protons: Positive part of an atom.
Neutrons: Negative part of an atom.
E
E
P N
N P
E
E
25
E
E
Static Electricity
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges
attract each other.
Walking across a wool or nylon rug , you can
generate a static charge of electricity, discharging
several thousand volts of electricity to a metallic
object like a door handle.
26
Definitions
Coulomb: Practical unit of measurement of the
amount of electricity. Used to describe the flow
of electricity.
1 Coulomb = 6.24 X 1018 electrons.
Electrostatic or Dielectric field: The field or

force surrounding a charged body.
Charge Transfer
Direct Contact
Induction: Electron flow due to charged object in
close proximity.
27
Energy Band Diagrams

Valence Electrons are those electrons which
are located in the outermost or Valence
shell of an atom.
The number of valence electrons an atoms
has determines the electrical properties of
that atom.
< 4 electrons => Conductor
> 4 electrons => Insulator
4 electrons => Semiconductor
28
Energy Band Diagrams Continued

Conductor
Valence Band
29
Semiconductor
Forbidden Band
Insulator
Conduction Band
Bonding
Covalent vs. Ionic Bonding
Octet Rule and Covalent Bonding
N and P Crystals
Base Material - Silicon or Germanium
Doping - Process by which impurity atoms are
added into a pure base material to create a
compound with improved electrical properties. This
process is used when making semiconductors.
30
Static Device Application

Electrostatic Precipitator: Collector Plates need
cleaning.
Mechanical
Filter
Oil
Mist
31
Ionizer Plate:
Positively charges
Particles in air
Collector Plate:
Negative plates
collects + ions.
Clean
Air
Basic Electrical Circuit
Power Supply
(Source)
Load
(Light)
Conductor
32
Types of Current
AC: Alternating Current
+
0
DC: Direct Current

+
0
33
Circuit Flow
Conventional Current Flow: Hole flow.
Electron Flow
Series Circuit
Parallel Circuit
Series/parallel Circuit
34
Basic Instruments & Measurements
Simpson 260
35
Fluke 177
Interest
One of the first meter instruments was used
by the Greeks (0 BC) and was the Sun Dial.
36
Outline
Types of meter movement
Types of meters
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Ohmmeter
Electrical diagrams
37
Basic Multimeters
A meter is a measuring instrument.
Ammeter: measures current.
Voltmeter: measures the potential difference
(voltage) between two points.
Ohmmeter measures resistance.
Multimeter: combines these functions and
others into a single instrument.
38
Ammeter
Measures current in amperes, milliamperes,
microamperes depending on the meter scale.
The coil in the meter movement is wound with
many turns of fine wire.
If a large current was allowed to flow the coil, it
would burn it out, so a shunt or alternate path is
provided for current. Most of the current flows
through the shunt.
Safety: Connect an ammeter is series with a
circuit device. Never in parallel!
39
Determining Shunt Resistors

Meter movement requires 1mA for full scale
deflection. The resistance of the coil is 100.
The ranges of the meter are: 0-1mA, 0-10mA, 050mA, 0-100mA.
E=IR = (.001)(100) = .1V without a shunt. For full
scale deflection, .1V is required.
A shunt must carry 90% of the current for the 010mA scale.
Rs =E/I = .1/.009 = 11.1
Calculate the other shunt resistors.

40
Voltmeter
To ensure voltages across the coil never exceed .
1V, multiplier resistors are placed in series with
the meter movement coil using a switch.
Voltage ranges 0-1V, 0-10V, 0-100V, 0-500V
.1V can be placed across meter at any one time,
therefore a resistor must drop .9V to use a 0-1V
scale. Full scale current deflection is 1mA or .
001A
Rm = E/I + .9V/.001A = 900
Calculate multiplier resistors for other scales.
41
Ohmmeter
Uses non-linier scale: zero-infinite.

Calibrate prior to use for analog meter.
Check leads at 0 for good lead connections.
Electrical leads safety story for finger stop.
42
Moving Iron Vane Meter
43
Moving Iron Vane Meter

Measure either AC or DC.
It depends on induced magnetism for its operation. It
utilizes the principle of repulsion between two
concentric iron vanes, one fixed and one movable,
placed inside a solenoid. A pointer is attached to the
movable vane. When current flows through the coil, the
two iron vanes become magnetized with north poles at
their upper ends and south poles at their lower ends for
one direction of current through the coil. Because like
poles repel, the unbalanced component of force, tangent
to the movable element, causes it to turn against the
force exerted by the springs.
44
D'ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT

The permanent-magnet moving-coil movement
used in most meters .
45
D'ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT
D'Arsonval meter movement is capable of indicating

current in only one direction.
Without a rectifier, or direct current of the wrong
polarity, the meter would be severely damaged.
Since the pointer will vibrate (oscillate) around the
average value indication, damping is used.
1.
2.
46
Airtight chamber containing a vane

The movement of the coil (conductor) through a magnetic
field causes a current to be induced in the coil opposite to
the current that caused the movement of the coil.
Digital Multimeters (DMM)

DMM are smaller and more
accurate in measurement.
Analog meters can measure
transients information better.
Measures resistance, DC &
AC voltage, amperage, and
diode testing.
47
Questions
Q. What is the difference between diode testing
and resistance checking?
A. The diode check is more sensitive with an
audible sound for continuity.
Q. What are some experiences that you have
with different meters?
A. Various
48
Electrical Diagrams
One line Diagram
L1
L2
M
i.e. Motor Controllers

Not Connected
Wiring Diagram
i. e. Ceiling Fan
Block Diagram
Connected
Antenna
Speaker
RF AMP
Detector
AF AMP
i. e. Car Stereo
Schematic Diagram
i. e. VCR player
49
RC
RB
Q1
Schematic Diagram
Logic Output Amplifier Using a
UJT and a SCR
INPUT FROM
LOGIC
+15 VDC
LOGIC SUPPLY
10K
1K
LOAD
115 VAC
50
Wiring Diagram
A>B
U304
+12V
U300
A=B
A0
A<B
A1
A>B
A2
A3
A=B
B0
A<B
A2
A3
A=B
B1
A<B
B2
B3
U301
U300
A0
A>B
A1
A=B
B0
S300
Q1
B1
A>B
Q2
B2
A=B
Q3
B3
A<B
A<B
A0
A1
A2
Q4
A3
Q5
C
U302
A=B
B0
Q6
B1
Q7
B2
Q8
B3
Q9
Q 10
Q 11
D S Q
U306
51
Q
R
Q 12
D S Q
M305B
C R
Q1
Conclusion
52
Basic Electrical Circuit Materials
53
Interest
Optical fiber is a long, cylindrical, transparent material that
confines and transmits light waves.
Carries information in the form of light giving the fiber
thousands of times more information-carrying capacity than
copper, which uses electricity to transmit signals.
3 LAYERS:
1. Core: carries the light (silica glass)
2. Cladding: confines the light to the core (silica glass)
3. Coating: provides protection for the cladding (plastic)
Carries information so fast that you could transmit 3

television show episodes in just one second. This is impossible
with copper wire.
54
Basics
Conductor: Pathways that allow electrons to flow
through an electrical circuit.
Electron flow
Hole flow (+ charge flow, opposing viewpoint).
Materials:
Copper: Most common.
Silver: Better conductor, more expensive
Aluminum: Used in high voltage lines because of its light
weight. Center core is steel for strength.
Brass: Used in electro-mechanical parts like relays and
contactors.
55
Conductor Sizes
American Wire Gauge System
The larger the gauge number, the
smaller the cross-sectional area the
wire will have.
Circular Mils (cmil)

cmil = Diameter2
4 cmil = (2 mil wire diameter) 2
1 inch by inch wire = (1000
mils)(250 mils)/.7854 = 318,309
cmils
56
15
30
36
Conductor Insulation
Insulation: Conductor protective coating.
Materials: Rubber, plastic and other synthetic
materials
Factors: Extreme heat, cold, chemicals, and oil.
Codings:
R: Rubber
H: Heat
C: Corrosion resistant
Types: High voltage, Coaxial, multiple conductors,

stranded conductors, solid conductors, 3 conductor
lighting cord.
57
Conductor Resistance
Factors that effect resistance.
Cross-sectional area of the conductor: Larger
diameter, lower resistance.
Type of conductor resistance: Aluminum 1000 feet =
2.57 ohms. Copper 1000 feet = 1.619 ohms.
Length of conductor: Longer conductor, higher
resistance.
Temperature of material: Higher temperature, higher
resistance.
58
Safety Standards
National Electrical Code (NEC) is a collection of
electrical standards that must be followed to
ensure safety of personnel and prevent electrical
fires.
Maximum voltage drop for branch circuits (i.e.
breaker panel to outlet) is 3%.
CMA = (K)(I)(L)/VD where CMA = area in cmil, K =
constant (K=12 for copper and 18 for aluminum), I =
current, L = length of conductor, VD = voltage drop.
59
Questions
Q. Given a copper conductor for a 20A drill 75
feet away, what size wire is needed?
W. Length = (75)(2)=150 VD = (120)(.03)=3.6
CMA = (K)(I)(L)/VD
CMA = (12)(20)(150)/3.6 = 10,000 cmils or No. 10
wire.
A. No. 10 wire
60
Breadboards
Copper strips are run in parallel under the rows of holes

and are used as conductor pathways.
Jumper wires are used to connect all the solid state devices.
Used to prototype a circuit.
61
Breadboards
62
Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
63

Heat Sink
Connection Pad
64
Conductor Path
Edge Connectors
65
66
Chassis
Chassis: Circuit using metal frame providing
conduction path for the negative side (ground)
i.e. Tail light being supplied by car battery.
i. e. Power supply using chassis resisters.
67
Switches
Classified by the actuator which is the mechanical
device that causes the circuit to open and close.
SPST: Single Pole Single Throw
Single Pole: 1 path for electron flow to be turned on &
off.
Single Throw: Switch controls only one circuit.
DPDT: Double Pole Double Throw

Double Pole: 2 paths for electron flow to be turned on
& off.
Double Throw: Switch controls two circuits.
68
Toggle Switch
69
Slide Switch
70
Rocker Switch
71
Rotary Switch
72
Rotary Switch Application
73
Wafer Switch
74
Limit Switch
75
Dip Switch
76
Questions
Q. What is something that uses a limit switch?

A. Computer, Camera, Shredder, etc.
Q. What is something that uses a dip switch?
A. Back of computer to switch 120 to 240 VAC
Q. What is something that uses a rocker switch?
A. Light switch
77
Switch ratings
Current: Maximum amperage rating to handle
current safely. High current causes high heat.
Voltage: Maximum voltage rating so that
electromechanical circuitry will not fail.
78
Connectors
Splice lug: Connects 2 wires.
Wire nut connector: Connect motor with controller.
79
Wire Cutter Tools
80
Circuit Protective Devices
Fuses: Open/ blow for circuit protection.

120V5A
Circuit Breakers: Protect larger rated equipment.

-Positions: on, off, trip-free
-Explain troubleshooting ACBs.
81
Incandescent Lamp
In 1879 Thomas
Edison developed the
1st incandescent lamp.
The tungsten replaced
the carbon filament.
The heat produced
from current flow is
usually what burns out
the filament with time.
82
Tungsten
Fluorescent Lamp
When the tube is energized, the filaments at the end will

glow producing heat and little light.
The heat vaporizes the mercury in the tube.
Once the mercury is vaporized, electrons flow in the
mercury vapor. Ultraviolet light is produced.
The light strikes the phosphor coating and causes it to
glow creating phosphorous light. (very little heat)
83
Lighting Physical Diagram
Ballast
Starter
Light Clip
84
Fluorescent Lighting Schematic
85
Neon Light
2 Electrodes inserted in the ends of a long glass tube.

Tube is filled with neon gas.
A neon light transformer (10,000V) is used to create
current through the neon gas. After the light is
energized, the neon tube will glow.
To create a variety of colors, other gasses are added. (i.e.
argon and helium)
86
LED Light
87
Halogen Lamp
A tungsten filament is
inserted through a glass tube
filled with halogen gas.
Produces more light.
The halogen gas returns
boiled of tungsten particles
back to the filament making
the filament last longer.
Creates high heat. Filaments
can be damaged from oil on
fingers.
88
light
filament
Fiber Lighting from the Sun

Future of lighting
89
Camera Flash Circuit
NE: Neon Lamp
90
FL: Flash
Resistors
Demonstrate resistor software.
91
Chip Resistors
92
Potentiometers
Rotary knob
varies resistance.
Can use an eraser
to clean carbon
deposits between
arm and resistor.
Uses: voltage and
speed adjust.
93
Variable Resisters
94
Wire Wound Resistors

Starting Resistors
95
Conclusion
Q. When do a use a resistor in a circuit?
A. provide opposition to current flow or develop
a voltage drop.
Q. What can cause a potentiometer to no longer
work?
A. Loose or broken arm.
96
Sources of Electricity
97
Interest
Solar power device use is on the increase.
Devices include cars to radios.
98
Basic Sources of Electricity
Friction
Chemical Action
Light
Heat
Pressure
Magnetism
99
Battery History
Luigi Galvani (1790): Frog supported on copper
wires leg twitched when touched with a steel
scalpel.
Alessandro Volta: Invented electric/ voltaic cell
by placing 2 dissimilar elements in a chemical
building an electric potential creating electricity
from chemical action.
10
Battery Experiment
A grapefruit can be used to produce enough
electricity to operate a small radio.
Nickel
Penny
10
Zinc Carbon Battery Cell

Zn + H2SO4 + H2O
ZnSO4 + H2O + H2
- plate + electrolyte + water
sulfated - plate +
water + hydrogen gas.
- End of Life due to H2 blanketing around carbon rod.
Zn
H2
+
H2SO4 + H2O
10
Primary Cells
D Cell
C Cell
AAA Cell
10
AA Cell
Primary Cells
10
Primary Cells
Can not be recharged. Chemical action can not be
reversed.
Defect: Polarization: H2 blanketing around electrode.
Depolarization agent is added to prevent the H2
blanketing around electrode . Compounds rich in
oxygen (i.e. MnO2) are used. The O2 in the
depolarization agent combines with H2 to form H2O.
(2MnO2 + H2 2MnO3 + H2O):
Local Action: Does not contribute to electrical
energy.
10
Battery Dry Cell

Flashlight Batteries: Zinc-carbon Cell
10
AA Alkaline Cell
10
Anode: Manganese Dioxide

Cathode: Zinc Powder
Electrolyte: Caustic Alkali
Separator: Separates + & -
Mercury Cell
New type of dry cell.
1.34 VDC from chemical action between zinc (-)
and mercury oxide (+).
Costly to make
Creates 5 times more current then other dry cells.
Maintains terminal voltage longer.
Uses: field instruments & portable
communications.
10
Lithium Cell
Lithium is bonded to a thin
layer of conductive metal
and has a porous separator
between it and the cathode.
This design allows for a
large surface area,
providing a large reaction
surface & higher discharge
rates compared to other
Lithium cells.
10
Silver Oxide Cell

Uses amalgamated zinc anode, silver oxide as the
cathode material, & a potassium hydroxide
electrolyte.
Silver oxide cells are ideal for miniature devices
where space is limited.
Voltage: 1.5 to 1.2 V
Uses: Watches
11
Silver Oxide Cell
11
Secondary Cells
Can be recharged or restored.
Chemical action can be reversed.
11
Battery Chargers
Used to restore the charge on rechargeable
batteries.
Used for: AA batteries and car batteries.
11
Battery Chargers Schematic
11
Battery Chargers P/S Schematic
Parts of a Power Supply
11
Stepdown Transformer
Bridge Rectifier
Filters
Regulator
Battery Charges
Normal: Done when battery is discharged
Equalizing: Done to drive sulphates off of
positive plate.
Float: Keep at full charge.
Freshening: New batteries
11
Incidents
Battery fire due to charging battery.
11
Battery Wet Cell
11
Measuring Specific Gravity
Determines state of the charge on the battery.

11
Lead Acid Battery
12
Lead Acid Battery

Primary Chemical Reactions
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2 SO4
-2
charge
2PbSO4-2 + 2H2O + 5 e-
discharge
Half Cell Chemical Reactions

Pb + SO4-2 = PbSO4-2 + 2 e PbO2 + 4 H+ + 2 e- + SO4-2 = PbSO4-2
Pb
PbO2
H2 SO4-2
H2 O
Electrolyte
12
Separator
Lead Acid Battery Description

In a wet cell, the metals are sponge lead (Pb) and lead
peroxide (PbO2), and the electrolyte is dilute sulfuric
acid (H2SO4).
The reaction begins as sulfate (SO4) breaks away from
the acid and unites with the lead of both the positive and
negative plates to form lead sulfate (PbSO4).
The oxygen (O2) is thereby liberated from the lead
peroxide and joins with the hydrogen (H2 -- what's left
over after the sulfate left the acid) to produce ordinary
water (H2O), which dilutes the electrolyte.
12
Lead Acid Battery

Terminal
Post
Terminal
Post
Pl
Se
pa
ra
to
r
at
es
Plastic
Case
12
Lead Acid Battery

Batteries self- discharge 1-25% per month in
storage
Lead sulfation starts occurring when the state-ofcharge drops below 100%. If left in a vehicle,
disconnecting the negative cable will reduce the
level of discharge by eliminating the load. Cold
will slow the self-discharge process down and
heat will speed it up.
Batteries are recycled by law.
12
Battery Safety
12
Nickel-cadmium Cell
12
Nickel-cadmium Cell
Chemical Reaction:
2 NiOOH + 2H2O + Cd
Oxy-Nickel hydroxide
charge
discharge
2 Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
Nickel hydroxide
Cadmium hydroxide
These batteries contain a Ni(OH)2 cathode, Cd anode

and aqueous KOH electrolyte.
Ni(OH)2 has a layered CdI2 structure, and NiOOH is
apparently a complex, multiphase material.
Advantages: High cycles (often 1000's) and long shelf
life (possibly months without significant self-discharge).
Disadvantages: Relative to Pb acid include lower power
densities, greater cost, and a "memory" effect.
12
Nickel-cadmium Cell
Memory effect: Unused capacity of a cell cannot
be utilized if the cell is not fully discharged.
Related to the formation of a passive surface on
the electrodes that forms a barrier to further cell
reaction.
12
Nickel-cadmium Cell
Applications:
Cassette players and recorders

Dictating machines
Instruments
Personal Pagers
Photoflash equipment
Portable communications equipment Portable hand tools and
appliances
Shavers
Tape recorders
Toothbrushes
12
Questions
Q. What do you use batteries for?
A. Radios, lights, fans, cars, toys, calculators, cameras,
laptops.
Q. What is the largest battery you have seen?
A. Submarine battery.
Q. What is the difference between rechargeable and
disposable batteries?
A. Rechargeable batteries are made of NiCAD while
disposable batteries are alkaline because NiCAD can be
cycled more.
13
Dirty Cells cause grounds
13
Cell Damage
13
Questions
Q. What is the chemical reaction for a lead-acid
battery?
A. Pb+PbO2+2H2 SO4-2
2PbSO4-2+2H2O+5 e-.
Q. What is a button battery made of?
A. Silver Oxide.
Q. If your battery is grounded, how do you repair it?
A. clean it & retest or take it to Sears to check the
internal resistance.
charge
discharge
13
Batteries in Series
Physical Description
_
1.5V@1A
1.5V@1A
Electrical Schematic
_ + _ + _ + _ +
13
1.5V@1A
1.5V@1A
Output
6 VDC
1A
Batteries in Parallel
+
1.5V
@1A
1.5V
@1A
1.5V
@1A
1.5V
@1A
_
_
_ _
_
+ +
+
+
13
Output
1.5 VDC
4A
Batteries in Series-Parallel
1.5V
@1A
1.5V
@1A
1.5V
@1A
+
1.5V
@1A
_
1.5V
@1A
1.5V
@1A
1.5V
@1A
_
_ _
_
+ +
+
+
_
_ _
_
+ +
+
+
13
1.5V
@1A
Output
6 VDC
2A
Battery Capacity
Look at manufacture chart for specifications.
Capacity in Amp-Hours (AH) is the ability to
produce current over a period of time.
Rate of discharge must be considered in order to
get maximum AH out of battery.
Factors effecting capacity of battery:
13
Number of plates per cell.

Kind of separators effect capacity & battery life.
General condition of the battery. (i.e. age, grounds,
state of charge).
Other Sources of Electricity
13
Solar
Heat
Crystals
Fuel Cells
Diesels
Generators
Photovoltaic Cell
13
Photovoltaic Cell
Schematic symbol
_
Physical description
L
Sunlight
N type semiconductor
P type semiconductor
Specifications: 1 cell produces 1 Watt and .5 Volts

14
Cells can be connected into arrays.

Arrays are build with cells in series and parallel.
Photovoltaic Cell Application

Used to keep solar powered cars charged when
not being driven.
14
Questions
Q. What are some applications that you have
used a solar cell for?
A. Cars, calculators, heat new houses.
Q. What is the current and voltage of 6-6 volt,
2 amp batteries placed in parallel in a
spotlight?
A. 6 Volts and 12 Amps.
14
Photoresistive Cells
Schematic symbol
14
Photoresistive Cell Application

Resistance is proportional to the light source
applied.
The circuit below uses a photoresistive call to
bias the base of a transistor. The output of this
amplifier could be used to power a light (Street
+V
Light). PILOT
DEVICE
CC
+VOUT
AC OR DC
14
Thermocouple
Schematic symbol
_
Iron Wire
Copper Wire
Galvanometer:
Measures very
Small currents.
Thermocouple
Match
Thermocouple + Galvanometer = Pyrometer
14
Group of thermocouples = Thermopile
Piezoelectric Effect
Definition: The property of some crystals (i.e.
Quartz) that when a pressure is exerted on one
axis, a proportional voltage is present on the
other axis.
Physical Description:
pressure
electrical
waves
e-
Sound waves
14
Quartz
Crystal
Output
Fuel Cells
Schematic symbol
Operation
FC
Physical description
L
Electrode
Electrode
Hydrogen
Gas
_ Potassium +
Hydroxide
KOH
Electrolyte
14
Oxygen
Gas
H2 gas supplied develops a

potential on electrode &
ionizes the electrolyte.
O2 gas supplied develops a +
potential on electrode &
ionizes the electrolyte.
H2O is waste product of
chemical reaction with no
heat loss.
Used in the space program.
Ratings: 1.23V, 2KW
Magnetohydrodynamic Generator
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) electricity is
generated when ionized gas is passed through a
magnetic field.
MHD converter
Gas heated by solar power > 2000F
Ionizing
Gas
14
+
_
Coil for
Magnetic Field _
+
Output
Anode Plate
Cathode Plate
Ionizing
Gas
(Argon or
Helium)
Generator
Schematic symbols
G
Output waveform
Phase A Phase B Phase C
14
Generator
Generates 450 VAC, 60 Hz, 3 phase electricity.
15
Conclusion
Q. Explain a way to produce electricity?
A. Various
Q. What is the output waveform of the Hawaiian
Electric Company?
A. 3 Phase Sine Wave.
15
Series Circuits
15
Interest
Knowing how to do calculations in series
circuits is one of the basic building blocks in
electronics.
Electronics software products let you
download software to run on your computer
testing your knowledge of circuit
calculations. Demonstrate in class.
Resistor calculator software.
15
Series Circuit Formulas

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + EN
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R N
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = IN
15
Voltage in a Series Circuit

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + EN
Kirchhoffs voltage law: The source voltage of
a series circuit is equal to the total value of each
individual voltage drop.
Example:
ER1 = 7V
R1
15
ER2 = 8v
R2
ER3 = 4V
R3
ET = 19V
Current in a Series Circuit

IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = IN
Total amperes into the circuit is the same across
each component that current travels through in a
series circuit.
Example:
IR1 = 2mA
R1
15
IR2 = 2mA
R2
IR3 = 2mA
R3
IT = 2mA
Resistance in a Series Circuit

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R N
Total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances in a series circuit. Total
resistance is additive.
Example:
R1 = 12
R1
15
R2 = 7
R2
R3 = 6
R3
RT = 25
Determining Unknown Voltage

ER1 = 5V
ER2 = 7V
R1
R2
ET = 24VDC
ER5 = 1V
R5
ER4 = 2V
R4
R3
ER3 = ?V
Q. What is the voltage drop across R3?

W. 24-(5+7+1+2)=
A. 9 VDC
15
Determining Power
ER1 = 2V
ER2 = 3V
R1
R2
ER5 = 6V
R5
ER4 = 5V
R4
Given: Power = EI
IT = 3A
R3
ER3 = 4V
Q. What is the total power in the circuit?

W. (2V)(3A) + (3V)(3A) + (4V)(3A) + (5V)(3A) + (6V)(3A) =
6W +
9W + 12W + 15W + 18W =
A. 60 Watts
15
Questions
ER1 = 1V
ER2 = 2V
R1
R2
ER5 = 2V
R5
ER4 = 9V
R4
IT = 5A
R3
ER3 = 3V

W. (1V)(5A) + (2V)(5A) + (3V)(5A) + (9V)(5A) + (2V)(5A) =
5W + 10W + 15W + 45W + 10W =
A. 85 Watts
16
Questions Continued
ER1 = 1V
ER2 = 3V
R1
R2
ET = ?VDC
ER5 = 1V
R5
ER4 = 2V
R4
R3
ER3 = 5V
Q. What is the voltage of the power supply?

W. 1+3+5+2+1=
A. 12 VDC
16
Questions Continued
ER1 = ?V
R1
ER2 = 1KV
R2
ET = 2, 555VDC
ER5 = 500V
R5
ER4 = .001MV
R4
R3
ER3 = 45V
Q. What is the voltage of R1?

W. 2,555-(1000+45+1000+500)=
A. 10 VDC
16
Using Ohms Law in Series Circuits

ER2 = 12V
R1
Given: E = IR
R2
R2 = 4
R3
R5
R4
Q. What is the total current in the circuit?

W. 12/4=
A. 3A
16
Troubleshooting a Lighting Circuit

Isolation
Transformer
Half Wave
Rectifier
D1
24VAC
T1
IL1=4A
L1
R1
D2
Q. RI has an open (is damaged), what will be the rating

Of the new resistor?
W. 24/4=
A. 6
16
Using a Voltmeter
Voltmeter 2
= 0 VDC
Voltmeter 1
= 6 VDC
_
6VDC
+
16
F1
_
+
SW1
Open
10
R1
10
+
R2
10
10
R4
R3
Using a Voltmeter Continued

Voltmeter 2
= 1.5 VDC
Voltmeter 1
= 0 VDC
_
6VDC
+
16
F1
_
+
SW1
Shut
10
R1
10
+
R2
10
10
R4
R3
R1 Shorted
Voltmeter 2
= 2 VDC
Voltmeter 1
= 0 VDC
_
6VDC
+
16
F1
SW1
Shut
10
R1
10
R2
10
10
R4
R3
R1 Open
Voltmeter 2
= 0 VDC
Voltmeter 1
= 6 VDC
_
6VDC
+
16
F1
SW1
Shut
10
R1
10
R2
10
10
R4
R3
Questions
Voltmeter 1
_
6VDC
+
_
F1
SW1
Shut
Voltmeter 2
10
R1
10
+
R2
10
10
R4
R3
Q. Fuse 1 has blown, what will be the voltage across it?

A. 6 VDC
Q. Fuse 1 has blown, what will be the voltage across R1?
A. 0 VDC
16
Conclusion
Q. How is E, I, R calculated in series circuits?
A.
1. ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + EN
2.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R N
3. IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = IN
Q. What voltage is read across a shorted resister
in a series circuit?
A. 0 V
17
Parallel Circuits
17
Interest
The resistors in chips
2X scale
17
10X scale
Parallel Circuit Formulas

IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + IN
ET = E1 = E2 = E3 = EN
RT = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/RN)
RT =R1R2/(R1 + R2)
17
Parallel Circuit Voltage

ET = E1 = E2 = E3 = EN
ET = 24VDC
R1
R2
R3
R4
ER1 = 24V
ER2 = ?V
ER3 = 24V
ER4 = 24V

W. ET = ER2
A. 24 V
17
Kirchhoffs Current Law

The algebraic sum of all currents entering any
point will equal the sum of all currents leaving
that point.
Simply stated: The current flowing into a
junction of parallel resistance is equal to the
current flowing out of the same junction.
Branch current: Individual currents.
Mainline current: Total current.
17
Parallel Circuit Current

IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + IN
IT = 16A
R1
R2
R3
R4
IR1 = 5A
IR2 = ?A
IR3 = 8A
IR4 = 1A
IT = 16A
Q. What is the current passing through R2?

W. IR2 = IT (IR1 + IR3 + IR4) = 16 (5 + 8 + 1)
A. 2A
17
Parallel Circuit Resistance

RT = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/RN)
RT = ?
R1
R2
R3
R4
RR1 = 34
RR2 = 17
RR3 = 8.5
RR4 = 4.25
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit?
17
W. RRT = 1/(1/RR1 + 1/RR2 + 1/RR3 + 1/RR4 )

= 1/(1/34 + 1/17 + 1/8.5 + 1/4.25)
= 1/(1/34 + 2/34 + 4/34 + 8/34)
= 1/(15/34)
= 34/15
A. RT = 2.27

RT =R1R2/(R1 + R2)
RT = ?
R1
R2
RR1 = 34
RR2 = 17

W. RT = R1R2/(R1 + R2)
= (34)(17)/(34 +17)
= 578/51
A. RT = 11.33
17

RT =R1R2/(R1 + R2)
RT = ?
R1
R2
RR1 = 7.5K
RR2 = 250

W. RT = R1R2/(R1 + R2)
= (7500)(250)/(7500 + 250)
= 1,875,000/7750
A. RT = 241.94
17

RT = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/RN)
RT = ?
R1
R2
RR1 = 3.4K
RR2 = 2.1K
R3
RR3 = 1.6K
R4
RR4 = 2.1K

W. RRT = 1/(1/RR1 + 1/RR2 + 1/RR3 + 1/RR4 )
= 1/(1/3.4 + 1/2.1 + 1/1.6 + 1/2.1)
= 1/(.294 + .476 + .625 + .476)
= 1/(1.871)
A. RT = .534K
18
Parallel Circuit Equal Resistance

RT = R/N
RT = ?
R1
R2
RR1 = 8K
RR2 = 8K
R3
RR3 = 8K
R4
RR4 = 8K

W. RRT = R/N
= 8K/4
A. RT = 2K
18
Parallel Circuit Troubleshooting

Voltmeter
= 0 VAC
T2
Fuses
Removed
L2
ET = 24VAC
T1
R1
R2
R3
R4
L1
Q. What must be checked before working on a circuit?

A. No voltage in circuit.
18
Questions
Q. What law can be used to do calculations in
parallel circuits
A. Ohms Law
Q. Given a total resistance of 12K, what would
be the equal parallel resistance for 4 resistors in
parallel?
W. R = RRT/N = 12K/4
A. 4K
18

Ohmmeter
= 0
T2
Fuses
Blown
L2
ET = 24VAC
RR4 = 250
R1
R2
R3
R4
RR1 = 250 RR2 = 250 RR3 = 250

T1
L1
Q. What caused the fuses to blow?

A. R1 shorted.
18

Ohmmeter
= 4
T2
Fuses
Removed
L2
ET = 24VAC
RR4 = 12
R1
RR1 = 12
T1
R2
R3
RR2 = 12
RR3 = 12
R4
L1
Q. What fault is present in this circuit and why?

A. R4 is open. Rt should be 3 for 4 parallel equal
resistors. R4 is visually open.
18

Ammeter
= ?A
T2
L2
ET = 24VAC
RR4 = 4
R1
RR1 = 4
T1
R2
R3
RR2 = 2
RR3 = 2
R4
L1
Q. What is total circuit current indicated on the

ammeter?
A. 667mA?
18
Conclusion
Q. How must an ammeter always be connected
in a circuit?
A. In series
Q. What is a fault condition that can cause fuses
to blow or circuit breakers to trip open?
A. Shorted circuit component.
18
Series-Parallel (Combination) Circuits
18
Interest
Camera resistors: small and precise.
18
Reducing a Complex Circuit

Total Resistance: Equivalent resistance in a
circuit.
Series-Parallel Circuit: Combination circuit.
Reduce combination circuit to a simple series
circuit.
19
Reducing to a Simple Series Circuit

Step 1
RT = ?
19
R1
RR1 = 6K
R2
RR2 = 400
R3
RR3 = 1.6K

W. RR1-R2 = R1R2/(R1 + R2)
= (6)(.4)/(6 + .4)
= 2.4/6.4
RR1-R2 = .375 K
RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2 + R3
= .375 + 1.6
A. RT = 1.975K

Step 1
RT = ?
R1
RR1=4
R2
RR2=20
R3
RR3 = 12
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12

W. RR1-R2 = R1 + R2 = 4 + 20 = 24
RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2R3/(RR1-R2 + R3) = (24)(12)/(24 + 12)
= 288/36 = 8
RR1-R2-R3-R4 = RR1-R2-R3 + R4 = 8 + 12
A. RT = 20
19

Step 1
RT = ?
ET = 10VDC
19
R1
RR1=3
R3
RR3 = 9
R2
RR2=6
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5
RR5 = 18
R6
RR6 = 9
Step 4
W. RR1-R2 = R1 + R2 = 3 + 6 = 9
RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2R3/(RR1-R2 + R3) = (9)(9)/(9 + 9)
= 81/18 = 4.5
RR5-R6 = R5 + R6 = 18 + 9 = 27
RR4-R5-R6 = RR5-R6R4/(RR5-R6 + R4) = (27)(12)/(27 + 12)
= 324/39 = 8.308
RR1-6 = RR1-R2-R3 + RR4-R5-R6 = 4.5 + 8.308
A. RT = 12.808
Using Ohms Law
Formulas for the last circuit:
Determine overall values.

ET/RT=IT
Determine individual values using series & parallel rules.
ER1-R2-R3=ITRR1-R2-R3
ER1-R2-R3=ER3
ER3/RR3=IR3
IT-IR3=IR1-R2
IR1=IR2=IR1-R2
ER1=IR1RR1
ER2=IR2RR2
19
Ohms Law Combination Circuit 1

Step 1
RT = ?
ET = 10VDC
R1
RR1=3
R3
RR3 = 9
R2
RR2=6
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5
RR5 = 18
R6
RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the total current in the circuit?
W. IT=ET/RT=10/ 12.808
A. IT=.7808A
W. ER4-R5-R6=ITRR4-R5-R6=(. 7808)(8.308)=6.487V
ER4-R5-R6=ER4=6.487V
IR4=ER4/RR4=6.487/12
A. IR4=.5406A
19

Step 1
RT = ?
ET = 10VDC
R1
RR1=3
R3
RR3 = 9
R2
RR2=6
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12
Step 4
Step 3
R5
RR5 = 18
R6
RR6 = 9

W. IR5=IT-IR4= (.7808)-(.5406)
A. IR5 =.2402A
W. IR6=IR5
A. IR6= . 2402A
19

Step 1
RT = ?
ET = 10VDC
R1
RR1=3
R3
RR3 = 9
R2
RR2=6
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12
Step 4
Step 3
R5
RR5 = 18
R6
RR6 = 9
Q. What is the voltage passing through R5?

W. ER5=IR5RR5= (.2402)(18)
A. ER5 =4.3236V
W. ER6=IR6RR6= (.2402)(9) or ER6=ER5-R6-ER5=6.487- 4.324
A. ER6 =2.1618V
19

Step 1
RT = ?
ET = 10VDC
R1
RR1=3
R3
RR3 = 9
R2
RR2=6
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5
RR5 = 18
R6
RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the ammeter reading in the circuit?
W. IT=ET/RT=10/12.808
A. IT=.7808A
W. ER1-R2-R3=ITRR1-R2-R3=(.7808)(4.5)=3.5136V
ER1-R2-R3=ER3=3.5136V or Et-ER4-R5-R6=10-6.487=3.513V
IR3=ER3/RR3=3.5136/9
A. IR3=.3904A
19

Step 1
RT = ?
ET = 10VDC
R1
RR1=3
R3
RR3 = 9
R2
RR2=6
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12
Step 4
Step 3
R5
RR5 = 18
R6
RR6 = 9

W. IR1=IT-IR3= (.7808) - (.3904)
A. IR1=.3904A
W. IR1=IR2
A. IR2= .3904A
19

Step 1
RT = ?
ET = 10VDC
R1
RR1=3
R3
RR3 = 9
R2
RR2=6
Step 2
R4
RR4 = 12
Step 4
Step 3
R5
RR5 = 18
R6
RR6 = 9

W. ER1=IR1RR1= (.3904)(3)
A. ER1 =1.1712V
W. ER2=IR2RR2= (.3904)(6) or ER2=ER1-R2-ER2=3.513-1.171
A. ER2 =2.342V
20
Sample Problem 1
A
RT = ?
ET = 12VDC
R1
RR1=6
R2
RR2=2
R3
RR3 = 6
R4
RR4 = 4
R5
RR5 = 8

W. RR4-R5 = R4 + R5 = 4 + 8 = 12
RR3-R4-R5 = RR4-R5R3/(RR4-R5+R3)=(12)(6)/(12+6)
= 72/18 = 4
RR2-R3-R4-R5 = RR3-R4-R5+RR2=4+2=6
RR1-5=RR2-R3-R4-R5RR1/(RR2-R3-R4-R5+RR1)=(6)(6)/(6+6)
36/12
A. R == 3
T
20
Sample Problem 1 Continued 1

A
RT = ?
ET = 12VDC
R1
RR1=6
R2
RR2=2
R3
RR3 = 6
R4
RR4 = 4
R5
RR5 = 8
Q. What does the ammeter read in the circuit?

W. IT=ET/RT=12/3
A. IT=4A
W. ET=ER1=12V
IR1=ER1/RR1=12/6
A. IR1=2A
20
Sample Problem 1 Continued II

A
RT = ?
ET = 12VDC
R1
RR1=6
R2
RR2=2
R3
RR3 = 6
R4
RR4 = 4
R5
RR5 = 8

W. ET=ER2-R3=12V
IR2=IR2-R3=ER2-R3/RR2+(R3,R4,R5)=12/(2+4)
A. IR2=2A
W. ER2=IR2RR2= (2)(2)
A. ER2=4V
W. ER3=ET- ER2 = 12-4
A. ER3=8V
20
Sample Problem 1 Continued III

A
RT = ?
ET = 12VDC
R1
RR1=6
R2
RR2=2
R3
RR3 = 6
R4
RR4 = 4
R5
RR5 = 8

W. ER3=ER4-R5=8V
IR3=ER3/RR3=8/6=1.3A
IR4=IR2- IR3=2 - (1.333) Kirchhoffs Current Law
A. IR4=.6667A
W. ER4=IR4RR4= (. 6667)(4)
A. ER4=2.667V
W. ER5=IR5RR5= (. 6667)(8)
A. ER5=5.333V
20
Sample Problem 1 Continued IV

A
RT = ?
ET = 12VDC
R1
RR1=6
Point 1
R2
RR2=2
R3
RR3 = 6
R4
RR4 = 4
R5
RR5 = 8
Point 2
Point 3
Q. Explain Kirchhoffs Current Law.

W. IT=Ipoint1 + Ipoint2 + Ipoint3=2 + (1.333) + (.666) = 4A
A. Total current in circuit = current out of circuit.
Q. Why isnt the voltage drop across R3 = 12VDC?
W. ER2=IR2RR2= (2)(2) = 4VDC
A. 4 VDC is subtracted because of the nature of
voltage in a series circuit within a
combination circuit.
20
Questions
A
RT = ?
ET = 9VDC
R1
RR1=3
R2
RR2=9
R3
RR3 = 9
R4
RR4 = 6
R5
RR5 = 3
R6
RR6 = 18
R7
RR7 = 9

W. RR6-R7=RR6 + RR7=18+9=27
RR5-R6-R7 =RR6-R7R5/(RR6-R7+R5)=(27)(3)/(27+3)=81/30= 2.7
RR4-7=RR5-7 + RR4=2.7+6=8.7
RR3-7 = RR4-7R3/(RR4-7+R3)=(8.7)(9)/(8.7+9)=78.3/16.7=4.689
RR2-7=RR3-7 + RR2= 4.689 +9=13.689
RT = RR2-7RR1/(RR2-7+RR1)=(13.689)(3)/(13.689+3)=
41.066/16.689 =2.461
IT=ET/RT=9/2.461= 3.657A
A. IIR1
=.6667A
IR2=IT- IR1= 3.657- 3
R2=E
R1/RR1=9/3=3A
20
Power
Power = Work/Time = (Force)(Distance)/Time
P=EI given: Power (watts), E (volts), I (current)
Watt: 1 volt of electrical pressure moves 1
coulomb of electrons past a given point in a
circuit in 1 second.
20
I E
Ohms Law and Watts Law
EI E/R
2
P/E
IR
P I
RE
P/R
E /R
E/I
IR
2
PR
E /P
2 P/I
P/I
2
20
Questions
A
RT = ?
ET = 9VDC
R1
RR1=3
R2
RR2=9
R3
RR3 = 9
R4
RR4 = 6
R5
RR5 = 3
R6
RR6 = 18
R7
RR7 = 9

W. PT = IT2RT = (3.657A)2(2.461 ) = (13.274)(2.461)
A. PT = 32.913 W
Q. What is the minimum power rating for R1?
W. PR1 = ER1RR1 = (9V)(3 )
A. PR1 = 27 Watts
20
Troubleshooting
Eliminate parallel paths when checking electrical
components.
21
Conclusion
A
G ET = 120VAC
R1
RR1=2.4K
R2
RR2=3.6K
R3
RR3 = 1.2K
Q. What is the total power in the circuit in KW?

W. W. RR2+R3= RR2 + RR3 = (3600)+(1200 )= 4800
RT=RR2+R3RR1/ RR2+R3+RR1 =(4800)(2400)/4800+2400=
11520000/7200=1600
PT = ETRT = (120V)(1600 )
A. PT = 192KW
21
Tuned Circuits
Series Tuned Circuits
1 . Theory
a . Ideal Series resonant circuit contains no resistance. It
contains only inductance and capacitance that are in
series with each other and with the source voltage.
2 . Operation
a . At Resonance ( XL = XC ); therefore, XL + XC = 0. The
resultant reactance is equal to 0. Impedance ( Z ) is
minimum.
b . Since Z is minimum, current is maximum for a given
voltage. Maximum current flow causes maximum
voltage drops across individual reactances.
21
Questions
Q. What is the formula for XL?
A. XL = 2 II f L.
Q. What is the formula for XC?
A. XC = 1 / 2 II f C.
Q. What is the resonant frequency in a typical
tuned circuit?
A. XL = XC, Fr = .159/Square root LC.
21
Tuned Circuit Operation

2 . Operation (Continued)
c . When Frequency is < Resonance:
- XC => current is lower => voltage drops across
reactances are lower.
d . When Frequency is > Resonance:
- XL => current is lower => voltage drops across
reactances are lower.
21

e . Series Tuned Circuit (Schematic)
C1
L1
GEN
R1
21

f . Series Tuned Circuit Analysis
XL
R=Z
0o
XC
XL
RESONANCE
XL
IMPEDANCE
XC - XL
CURRENT
XL - XC
o
XC
XC
BELOW
RESONANCE
21
ABOVE
RESONANCE
100
200
300
Fr
500
600
700
Z=R
Parallel Tuned Circuits

1. Theory
a . Called a tank circuit because it can store energy.
b . It has the ability to take the energy fed to it from a power
source and store this energy alternately in the inductor and
capacitor.
c . The resulting output is a continuous ac sine wave.
2 . Operation
a . Voltage is the same across the inductor and capacitor.
(parallel)
b . Current through the components varies inversely with
their reactances.
c . Total current through the circuit is the vectoral sum of the
two individual component currents.
d . IL and IC are 180o out of phase.
e . At resonance, IL and IC cancel each other out => no
current from source.
21
3 . Application
a . At resonance, the circuit has a maximum impedance
which results in minimum current drawn from the
source.
21

4. Schematic Circuit
L1
GEN
C1
R1
21

IL
5 . Circuit analysis
o
IC
RESONANCE
IC
IL
BELOW
RESONANCE
IC - IL
IMPEDANCE
IL - IC
CURRENT
I
o
22
IC
o
IL
Z
100
200
ABOVE
RESONANCE
300
Fr
500
600
700

6 . Applications
a . Tuned Amplifier
+VCC
RB
C1
L1
IMAX
VIN
CC
22
RL
Questions
Q. What are some examples of a parallel tuned
amplifiers?
A. Antenna tuners, air signal tracker, ham radio,
transponders (ID aircraft etc).
Q. What crystal can replace the RLC circuit to
make it last longer?
A. Piezoelectric Crystal.
22
Pulsed Amplifier
b . Pulsed Amplifier: 3 main sections
1. Gain Amp 2. Input Gate Signal 3. Tank Circuit
+VCC
R1
+
C1
VIN
OUTPUT SIGNAL
C2
22
L1
Pulsed Amplifier
T0
T1
T2
T3
INPUT GATE
OUTPUT SIGNAL
22
Tuned Amplifier
c. Tuned Amplifier: 3 main sections
1. Gain Amp 2. Positive Feedback Circuit 3. Frequency
Determining Device
+VCC
R1
+
C1
VIN
OUTPUT SIGNAL
Cy1
22
L1
Overdriven Amplifier
SATURATION
CUTOFF
C1
C2
Q1
R2
R1
INPUT
OUTPUT
-VEE
+VCC
SATURATION
CUTOFF
22
Overdriven Amplifier
a . The input signal drives the transistor into and out of
saturation and cutoff.
b . When the transistor is in saturation and / or cutoff,
that portion of the input waveform is clipped and
the output is distorted.
22
Magnetism and Relays
22
Interest
The magnetic field of the sun
22
Experiments Using Magnets

Horseshoe magnet
Ring magnets
Bar magnets
Coils
Ferris magnets
23
Phobos Large Magnet
23
Basic Magnetic Principles
Magnetic Poles
South Pole
North Pole
Magnetic lines of force exist between the north and
south poles. Like poles repel. Opposite poles attract.
Each magnetic line of force is an independent line.
None of the lines cross or touch a bordering line.
Natural Magnets: Lodestones were used by

mariners for navigation.
The Earth is a large magnet surrounded by a
23 magnetic field. (i.e. degaussing coils).
Questions
23
Q. What are some uses for magnets?

A. Relays, Levetron, hold things in place.
Q. How can a magnet loose its magnetism?
A. Pounding or dropping magnets upsets the
molecular alignment and weakens the magnet.
Heat sources also destroy magnets by causing
increased molecular activity, expansion and a
return to the molecules random positions.
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux: The many invisible lines of

magnetic force surrounding a magnet.
B=/A
B=Flux density in gauss (webers per square
centimeter)
(phi)=Number of lines
A=Cross sectional area in square centimeters
3rd Law of Magnetism:
23
The attractive force increases as the distance of the

distance between the magnets decrease.
Magnetic force varies inversely with (Distance)2
LHR for Coils

Thumb: Points in direction
Of flux
Fingers: Wrap around coil
In direction of current
23
Magnetism in a Coil
Q. What is the direction of flux in this coil?

W. Use LHR for coils.
A. Thumb points right.
23
LHR for Conductors
Fingers: Wrap around coil

In direction of circular magnetic
Field.
Thumb: Points in direction
of current.
23
Magnetism Tools
Magneprobe
23
Magnetism Computer Programs

Used for
component
design.
23
Reluctance
=F/R
= Total number of lines of magnetic force in
gilberts.
F= Force producing the field.
R= Resistance to the magnetic field. (Reluctance)
24
Electromagnets
Parts of Electromagnets
Iron Core
Coil
Residual Magnetism:
Retentivity of the iron
core.
24
Electromagnet Diagram
Q. What type of diagram is
this?
A. Wiring Diagram.
24
Magnetic Relay
24
Magnetic Relay Continued

Relay: Device used to control a large flow of
current by means of a low voltage, low current
circuit. A relay is a magnetic switch.
Coil: Attracts armature because of magnetism.
Armature: Lever Arm.
Contacts: Normally open (NO) Normally closed (NC)
Relay Maintenance:
24
Burnishing tool cleans contacts

Silver plated armatures should be replaced if there is
exposed copper.
Magnetic Relay Physical Description
24
Timing Relay
Timing Relays energize contacts for a specific
amount of time based on the adjustable setting.
Contacts are timed on and off.
24
Relay Controller Schematic

~
M1
M2
120 VAC, 60 HZ, 1

20A
20A
M1
TR2
TR1
C
D
Stop Button
24
B
TR
M2
E
Start Button
Reset Button
Magnetic Circuit Breaker

Parts
Operating
Mechanism
Tripper Bar
Arc Chutes
Frame
Rack out
mechanism
Indication
24
Manual Breakers
Manual breakers are shut locally at the
switchboard.
Magnetic circuit breakers are shut remotely from
a control station.
24
Doorbell
25
Buzzer Circuit
25
Magnetic Shields
Shielding is done using the permeability of some

other substance.
Magnetic lines of force flow through the path of
least resistance.
Shield
25
Magnetic Levitation Transportation
25
Magnetic Levitation Transportation

HSST is a magnetic levitation transportation
system that has been developed in Japan by
HSST Development Corporation established in
1993.
The HSST is magnetically-levitated (not
supported by wheels) and is propelled by a linear
induction motor (LIM), not by conventional
rotary electric motors.
25
Conclusion
Q. How does a relay work?
A. Coil energizes, armature engages, secondary
contact shuts/opens.
Q. When would a use a magnetic circuit breaker?
A. Used in electric plants to parallel generators
and switchboards.
Q. What is the LHR for conductors?
A. Fingers: wrap around coil. Thumb: points in
direction of current.
25
Diodes
Impurity Atoms:
Trivalent: Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium
(Ga), Indium (ln). Has three (3) valence electrons.
Known as an Acceptor Impurity.
Pentavalent: Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As),
Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi). Has five (5)
valence electrons.
Known as a Donor Impurity.
25
PN Material
25
N - Type Material:
Pure base material doped with a Donor
Impurity.
Majority Current Carrier: Electrons
Minority Current Carrier: Holes
P - Type Material:
Pure base material doped with an Acceptor
Impurity.
Majority Current Carrier: Holes
Minority Current Carrier: Electrons
Construction
Old Method: Grown Crystals.
Newer Methods:
Alloy Fused: N & P material made using
heat / pressure.
Diffused: N & P gas and heat.
Both methods are used to produce a PN
Junction.
25
Questions
Q) What is meant by a donor impurity?
A) 5 valiant electrons in outer shell.
Q) What are 4 examples of a donor
impurity?
A) Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony and
Bismuth.
25
Diode Definitions
Potential Hill (Junction Barrier) : Electrostatic field
set up across a PN junction which prevents further
combination of majority current carriers.
The value of the voltage of the potential hill depends
on the type of base material used during diode
construction.
1. Silicon (.5 - .8V)
2. Germanium (.2V)
Rated for up to 1500A / 3000V.
Used primarily in Rectifiers.
26
Operations & Definitions

Forward Bias: External voltage applied
which opposes the potential hill, effectively
reducing the width and resistance of the
depletion region. => Majority Current
Carriers flow through the PN junction.
Reverse Bias: External voltage applied
which aids the potential hill, effectively
increasing the width and resistance of the
depletion region. => No Majority Current
Carriers flow through the PN junction.
26
Rectifier Diode Block Diagram

Depletion Region
Anode
P +
--
++
--
++
--
++
--
++
- - -
Cathode
- N - -
Potential Hill
(Junction Barrier)
26
Rectifier Diode Schematic Diagram
Anode
26
Cathode
Diode Forward Bias

Depletion Region
Anode
P +
- - - N - -
Cathode
Potential Hill
(Junction Barrier)
26
Diode Reverse Bias

Depletion Region
Anode
+ +
+ P +
+ +
- - -
+++
- - -
+++
- - -
+++
- - -
+++
- - - N - -
Cathode
Potential Hill
(Junction Barrier)
26
Characteristic Curve
+I (mA)
Forward Bias
-V a -c
+V a -c
Reverse Bias
Avalanche
Breakdown
26
-I (uA)
Zener Diode
The Zener diode is a heavily doped diode which, as
a result of doping, has a very narrow depletion
region. This allows the diode to be operated in the
reverse biased region of the characteristic curve
without damaging the PN junction.
Zener Effect: The area of Zener diode operation
(<5V) where the Diode maintains a constant voltage
output while operating reverse biased.
Avalanche Effect: >5V applied to the diode while
reverse biased which tends to cause the diode to
eventually breakdown due to heat generation within
the lattice structure of the crystal.
26
Zener Diode Schematic Symbol
Anode
26
Cathode
Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Operating
Region
-Va-c
Reverse
Bias
26
Forward
Bias
+Va-c
I (uA)
Zener Operation
Ratings: .25V to 1500V
Used in SSMG / SSTG AC voltage regulator for the
reference circuit.
When a higher constant voltage is desired, the zener diodes
will be Stacked together in series and their voltages will
add together to make the higher desired voltage.
This is the case in the SSMG / SSTG AC voltage regulators
where four (4) 6v zener diodes are stacked to provide a 24V
reference to the comparison circuit.
27
Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

R1
Vin
Vout
CR1
27
Signal Diode
Same construction as the Rectifier Diode
except that it is designed to operate with a
very short reverse recovery time to allow it
to rectify high frequency AC inputs.
27
Power Supplies
Components and their function
Transformer - Receives the AC input from the
distribution system and either steps up or down
the voltage.
Rectifier - Converts the AC input voltage from
the transformer to a pulsating DC voltage.
Filter - Smoothes out the DC pulsations or ripple
received from the rectifier.
Regulator - Receives a smoothed DC voltage
from the Filter Stage and produces a steady DC
voltage to be used by electronic circuitry.
27
Half - Wave Rectifier
1:1
VIN
CR1
R1
VOUT
T1
27
Half - Wave Rectifier Operation

Positive half-cycle the diode is Forward Bias (FB),
negative half-cycle the diode is Reverse Bias (RB).
VDC = VPK X .318

Where: VDC = Average DC voltage
VPK = Peak input voltage
.318 = Constant
27
Full - Wave Rectifier

1:1
VIN
CR1
R1
VOUT
T1
CR2
27
Full - Wave Rectifier Operation

Positive half-cycle, 1 diode is FB, negative half-cycle
the other diode is FB.
VDC = VPK X .637

.637 = Constant
27
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

1:1
CR2
CR1
CR4
CR3
T1
R1
VIN
27
VOUT
Full - Wave Bridge

Rectifier Operation
Positive half-cycle, 1 diode is FB, negative half-cycle
the other diode is FB.
VDC = VPK X .637

.637 = Constant
27
Filters
A filter uses the characteristics of Inductors and
Capacitors to smooth the pulsating DC waveform
supplied by the Rectifier.
Types
High Pass - A series RC filter whose output is taken
from the resistor.
Series / Parallel - A filter configuration which uses
combinations of capacitors and inductors to smooth
the voltage and current pulsations from the rectifier
output.
28
Ideal filter characteristics

Rapid charge time constant for filter capacitors and
inductors.
Slow discharge time constant for filter capacitors
and inductors.
28
Capacitor Filter Configuration

Capacitor Input Filter Schematic Diagram
C1
VIN
VOUT
RB
28
Capacitor Filter Operation

Charge RC time constant is developed from the internal
resistance of the rectifier diodes and the capacitance of the
filter capacitor. The net result is that the low resistance of the
rectifier diodes develop a rapid charge RC time constant.
Discharge RC time constant is developed from the filter
capacitor and the load resistance. Since the load resistance is
rather large, the discharge RC time constant is somewhat
long.
RB is called the Bleeder Resistor because it provides a path
for the filter capacitor(s) to discharge when power is removed
from the circuit. RB has a very large resistance and usually
draws <10% of normal operating current.
28
LC Choke Filter Configuration

LC Choke Filter Schematic Diagram
L1
VIN
28
C1
VOUT
RB
LC Choke Filter Operation

Charge RC time constant is developed from the internal
resistance of the rectifier diodes, the Low DC resistance of the
inductor (L1), and the capacitance of the filter capacitor. The
net result is that the low resistance of the rectifier diodes and
inductor (L1) develop a rapid charge RC time constant.
Discharge RC time constant is developed from the filter
capacitor and the load resistance. Since the load resistance is
rather large, the discharge RC time constant is somewhat
long.
The Inductor acts to smooth out the current pulsations
produced by the rectifier and / or transformer stage of the
power supply.
28
RC PI Filter Configuration
RC PI Filter Schematic Diagram
Charge Path
Discharge Path
VIN
VOUT(C1)
28
R1
C1
C2
VOUT
RB
VOUT (C2)
RC PI Filter Operation
First Capacitor provides most of the filtering action.
Second Capacitor Provides additional voltage
filtering.
Resistor limits current flow to the desired value and
establishes the RC time constants for both filter
capacitors.
28
LC PI Filter Configuration
LC PI Filter Schematic Diagram
Charge Path
Discharge Path
VIN
VOUT(C1)
28
L1
C1
C2
RB
VOUT (C2)
LC PI Filter Operation
First Capacitor provides most of the filtering action.
Second Capacitor Provides additional voltage
filtering.
Inductor opposes changes in current flow to

reduce current spikes and establishes the RC
time constants for both filter capacitors.
28
Voltage Regulators
Series Regulator
Acts as a variable resistor in series with the load.
Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Schematic
R1
Vin
Vout
CR1
29
Voltage Regulator Operation
Vin
VIN
29
R1
Vout
CR1
VOUT
Transistor Voltage Regulators
Vin
29
Vout
OPAMP Voltage Regulators
Vin
29
Vout
Tubes, Transistors and Amplifiers
29
Interest
In 1947, Bardeen & Brattain at
Bell Laboratories created the
first amplifier! Shockley
(boss), came near to
canceling the project. The
three shared a Nobel Prize.
Bardeen and Brattain
continued in research (and
Bardeen later won another
Nobel). Shockley quit to start
a semiconductor company in
Palo Alto. It folded, but its
staff went on to invent the
integrated circuit (the "chip")
& to found the Intel
Corporation.
29
Tetrode Tube
(+) Plate
Control Grid: Controls

amplification rate &
electron flow with bias
voltage.
Shield: Screen gridincreases electron speed
cathode to + plate.
(-) Shield
Heater: Heats gas to gas

amplification state.
Control
Grid
(-) Cathode
Inert Gas: Mercury or

Argon gas.
Inert Gas
Heater
29
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
3 Electron Beams (Red, Green, Blue)
(-) Cathode (+) Anode
Grids
Conductive
Coating
Phosphor
Coated
Screen
The cathode is a heated filament (like light bulb filament) in a vacuum inside a glass tube. The
ray is a stream of electrons that naturally pour off a heated cathode into the vacuum.
The + anode attracts the electrons pouring off the cathode. In a TV's CRT, the stream of
electrons is focused by a focusing anode into a tight beam and then accelerated by an
accelerating anode. This tight, high-speed beam of electrons flies through the vacuum in the
tube and hits the flat screen at the other end of the tube. This screen is coated with phosphor,
which glows when struck by the beam.
29
Bipolar Transistors
History
Created in 1948 in the AT&T Bell Laboratories.
Scientists were performing doping experiments
on semiconductor material (diodes) and
developed a semiconductor device having three
(3) PN junctions.
29
Bipolar Transistor Construction

NPN / PNP Block Diagrams
Emitter
N
Base
Collector
Emitter
Collector
P
P
Base
29
Bipolar Transistor Theory

For any transistor to conduct, two
things must occur.
The emitter - base PN junction
must be forward biased.
The base - collector PN junction
must be reverse biased.
30
Bipolar Transistor Biasing (NPN)
FB
Emitter
RB
Collector
Base +
30
Bipolar Transistor Biasing (PNP)

FB RB
Emitter P
Collector
P
Base +
30
Bipolar Transistor Operation (PNP)

The + emitter repels the majority current carriers towards
the emitter - base PN junction.
Majority current carriers pass through the forward biased
emitter - base junction and flow into the base. Once in the
base, these current carriers now become minority current
carriers and are attracted to the strong negative voltage
applied to the collector.
90% of the current carriers pass through the reverse biased
base - collector PN junction and enter the collector of the
transistor.
10% of the current carriers exit transistor through the base.
The opposite is true for a NPN transistor.
30
Amplifier Operation
The transistor below is biased such that there is a degree of

forward bias on the base - emitter PN junction.
Any input received will change the magnitude of forward bias
& the amount of current flow through the transistor. The
magnitude of the output will be on the order of 1000x larger
depending on the value of +VCC.
+
0
RB
RC
+VCC
Q1
Input Signal
Output Signal
30
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation

When the input signal is large enough, the transistor
can be driven into saturation & cutoff which will make
the transistor act as an electronic switch.
Saturation - The region of transistor operation where a
further increase in the input signal causes no further
increase in the output signal.
Cutoff - Region of transistor operation where the input
signal is reduced to a point where minimum transistor
biasing cannot be maintained => the transistor is no
longer biased to conduct. (no current flows)
30
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation

Transistor Q-point
Quiescent point : region of transistor operation where
the biasing on the transistor causes operation / output
with no input signal applied.
The biasing on the transistor determines the amount of time
an output signal is developed.
Transistor Characteristic Curve

This curve displays all values of IC and VCE for a given
circuit. It is curve is based on the level of DC biasing
that is provided to the transistor prior to the
application of an input signal.
30
The values of the circuit resistors, and VCC will determine

the location of the Q-point.
Transistor Characteristic Curve

90 uA
80 uA
70 uA
IC
60 uA
Saturation
IB
Q-Point
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff
30
VCE
Transistor Maintenance
When troubleshooting transistors, do the
following:
Remove the transistor from the circuit, if
possible.
Use a transistor tester, if available, or use a
digital multimeter set for resistance on the
diode scale.
Test each PN junction separately. ( A front
to back ratio of at least 10:1 indicates a
good transistor).
30
Transistor Maintenance
This chart shows the readings for a good transistor.
Test Lead
Connection
(+/ -)
Base - Emitter
NPN
Resistance Reading
(High / Low)
LOW
PNP
Resistance Reading
(High / Low)
HI GH
Emitter - Base
HIGH
LOW
Base - Collector
LOW
HI GH
Collector - Base
HIGH
LOW
Emitter - Collector
HIGH
HI GH
Collector - Emitter
HIGH
HI GH
Transistor Maintenance Chart
30
Transistor Maintenance Chart

Advantages of junction transistors over point
contact transistors:
-Generate less noise.
-Handles more power.
-Provides higher current and voltage gains.
-Can be mass produced cheaply.
31
Questions
Q) What is the 7 step troubleshooting method?
A) Symptom recognition, symptom elaboration,
list possible faulty functions, identify faulty
function, identify faulty component, failure
analysis, repair, retest.
Q) What was the most difficult problem you
ever troubleshot?
A) Various
31
Bipolar Transistor Amplifiers

Amplifier Classification
Amplifiers can be classified in three ways:
Type (Construction / Connection)
Common Emitter
Common Base
Common Collector
Bias (Amount of time during each half-cycle output is

developed).
Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class C
Operation
Amplifier
Electronic Switch
31
Common Emitter Schematic

Output Signal Flow Path
RB
+
0
Input Signal
RC
+VCC
Q1
Output Signal
Input Signal Flow Path
31
Kirchoff Voltage Law

DC Kirchoff Voltage Law Equations and Paths
+VCC
Base - Emitter Circuit

RB
RC
IBRB + VBE - VCC = 0

Q1
31
Collector - Emitter Circuit

ICRC + VCE - VCC = 0
Common Emitter Operation

+
0
Positive Going Signal
RC
RB
Input
Signal
Q1
Output
Signal
31
Base becomes more (+) WRT

Emitter FB IC
VRC VC
VOUT ( Less + )
Negative Going Signal
Base becomes less (+) WRT

Emitter FB IC
VRC VC
0
VOUT ( More + )
Common Base Schematic

Q1

+
0
RE
RB
CC
RC
+VCC
+
0

31

Q1
RE
RB
CC
31
RC
+VCC

IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0
ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0
Common Base Operation

Q1
RE
RB
CC
+VCC
+
0
Input
Signal
31
RC

Emitter FB IC
VRC VC
VOUT ( More + )

Emitter FB IC
VRC VC
VOUT ( Less + )
Output
Signal
Common Collector Schematic

+VCC
RB
Q1
Input Signal
31
+
RE
Output Signal

+VCC
IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0
RB
Q1

ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0
RE
32
Common Collector Operation

+VCC
Q1

Emitter FB IE
VRE VE
VOUT ( More + )
RB
RE
32
Input
Signal
Output
Signal

Emitter FB IE
VRE VE
VOUT ( Less + )
AZAZA VOPINI & House of BEC

Common
Common Common
Common Common
Common
BB
EE
CC
Av
Av==Voltage
VoltageGain
Gain
Zo
Zo ==Output
Output Impedance
Impedance
Ap
Ap== Power
Powergain
gain
Zin
Zin==Input
Input Impedance
Impedance
Ai
Ai== Current
CurrentGain
Gain
32
Transistor Bias Stabilization

Used to compensate for temperature effects
which affects semiconductor operation. As
temperature increases, free electrons gain energy
and leave their lattice structures which causes
current to increase.
32
Types of Bias Stabilization

Self Bias: A portion of the output is fed back to the input
180o out of phase. This negative feedback will reduce overall
amplifier gain.
Fixed Bias: Uses resistor in parallel with Transistor emitterbase junction.
Combination Bias: This form of bias stabilization uses a
combination of the emitter resistor form and a voltage
divider. It is designed to compensate for both temperature
effects as well as minor fluctuations in supply (bias) voltage.
Emitter Resister Bias: As temperature increases, current flow
will increase. This will result in an increased voltage drop
across the emitter resistor which opposes the potential on the
emitter of the transistor.
32
Self Bias Schematic

+VCC
++o
o
Initial
Input
RC
Self Bias
Feedback
RB
Q1
=
32
o
VOUT
Resulting
Input
Emitter Bias Schematic

+VCC
DC Component
AC Component
RC
Q1
o
Initial
Input
32
++
RB
RE
VOUT
CE
Combination Bias Schematic

+VCC
DC Component
AC Component
RC
o
Initial
Input
32
++
RB1
Q1
RB2
RE
VOUT
CE
Amplifier Frequency Response

The range or band of input signal frequencies
over which an amplifier operates with a
constant gain.
Amplifier types and frequency response
ranges.
Audio Amplifier
15 Hz to 20 KHz
Radio Frequency (RF) Amplifier

10 KHz to 100,000 MHz
Video Amplifier (Wide Band Amplifier)

10 Hz to 6 MHz
32
Class A Amplifier Curve
90 uA
80 uA
70 uA
IC
IB
60 uA
Saturation
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
Q-Point
10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff
32
VCE
Class B Amplifier Curve
90 uA
IC
80 uA
IB
70 uA
60 uA
Saturation
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
Q-Point
10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff
33
VCE
Class AB Amplifier Curve

Can be used for guitar distortion.
90 uA
IC
80 uA
IB
70 uA
60 uA
Saturation
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
Q-Point
10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff
33
VCE
Class C Amplifier Curve
90 uA
IC
80 uA
IB
70 uA
60 uA
Saturation
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff
33
VCE
Q-Point
Amplifier Coupling Methods

Direct: The output of the first stage is directly connected
to the input of the second stage. Best Frequency Response No frequency sensitive components.
Impedance (LC) Coupling: Similar to RC coupling but an
inductor is used in place of the resistor. Not normally used
in Audio Amplifiers.
RC Coupling: Most common form of coupling used. Poor
Frequency Response.
Transformer Coupling: Most expensive form coupling
used. Mainly used as the last stage or power output stage
of a string of amplifiers.
33
Direct Coupling Schematic

+VCC2
RC2
+VCC1
RC1
RB2
Q2
RB1
Q1
33
RC Coupling Schematic
+VCC2
RC2
+VCC1
RC1
RB1
CC
RB2
Q2
Q1
33
Impedance Coupling Schematic

+VCC2
RC2
+VCC1
RB2
RB1
CC
Q2
Q1
33
Transformer Coupling Schematic

+VCC2
RC2
+VCC1
RC1
RB2
Q2
RB1
T1
Q1
33
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers

Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
Construction
Block Diagram
Anode
Cathode
P
33
P N
Left
Floating
Gate
Region
OPAMP Voltage Regulators
Vin
33
Vout
SCR Schematic
Anode
Cathode
Gate
34
SCR Bias
When the SCR is forward biased and a gate signal
is applied, the lightly doped gate regions holes will
fill with the free electrons forced in from the cathode.
FB
FB
Anode
Cathode
P
P N
RB
+
34
Gate
SCR Operation
Acts as an electronic switch
Essentially a rectifier diode which has a controllable
Turn - on point. Can be switched approximately
25,000 times per second.
Once the SCR conducts, the gate signal can be
removed. The difference in potential across the anode &
cathode of the SCR will maintain current flow.
When the voltage across the SCR drops to a level below
the Minimum Holding value, the PN junctions will
reform and current flow through the SCR will stop.
34
SCR Phase Control

The term Phase Control refers to a process where varying the
timing of the gate signal to an SCR will vary the length of time
that the SCR conducts.
This will determine the amount of Voltage or Power delivered to a load.
34
Unijunction Transistors (UJT)

Construction: Originally called Double-based
Diodes.
P Type material doped into the N type base
material.
Placement of the Emitter into the Base determines
the voltage level (%) at which the the UJT fires.
This % is called the Intrinsic Standoff Ratio ( ).
Once constructed, the Intrinsic Standoff Ratio cannot be changed.
The actual voltage value at which the UJT fires is

determined by the amount of source voltage applied.
34
UJT Block Diagram

Base 2
Equivalent Circuit
Base 2
Emitter
Emitter
Base 1
34
Base 1
UJT Schematic Symbol

Base 2
Emitter
Base 1
34
UJT No Operation
When VE is less than or equal to the voltage base one to
emitter requirement (VE - B1), the UJT will not fire.
Base 2
++
Depletion Region
Emitter
No Current Flow
P
Base 1
34
UJT Operation
When VE is more than the voltage base one to
emitter requirement (VE - B1), the UJT will fire.
Base 2
++
UJT Fires
Emitter
VE > VE-B1
Base 1
34
UJT Sawtooth Generator
R1
Q1
E
VOUT
C1
B2
VBB
B1 SW1
C1 Charge
C1 Discharge
34
UJT Relaxation Oscillator

VOUT1
+
RB2
R1
VOUT2 +
VOUT3
VOUT2
Q1
VOUT1
C1
RB1
VOUT3
VBB
SW1
C1 Charge
C1 Discharge
35

The output of the Oscillator can be used for sweep
generators, gating circuit for SCRs, as well as timing
pulses for counting and timing circuits.
35
Lessons Learned
Video Card ruined from ESD < 20 V
(Improper Handling).
Bad Inductor in a regulator detected with
Huntron Tracker. Slightly different oval.
35
Summary
Q) What is the phase relationship between
input and output voltage in a common emitter
circuit?
A) 180 degrees.
35
Summary Continued
Q) What type of transistor bias uses both self
and fixed bias?
A) Combination bias.
Q) What is the frequency response range of an
RF amplifier?
A) 10Khz 100, 000 Mhz.
35
4 . Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)

a . Construction
J1
A1
A2
G
35
J2
N
A2
A1
b . Schematic Symbol
Anode 2
Anode 1
A2
A1
Gate
35
c . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse
Breakover
Voltage
Breakback
Voltage
V A2-A1
Holding Current (IHO)
35
Forward
Breakover
Voltage
d . Characteristics
1 . More vigorous switching characteristic. V to
almost zero.
2 . More temperature stable.
3 . More symmetrical wave form output.
4 . Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits.
e . Theory
1 . Lower breakover voltages than Diac. (+/- 8V is
most popular).
2 . SBS has more pronounced Negative
Resistance region.
3 . Its decline in voltages is more drastic after it
enters the conductive state.
35
f . Operation
1 . As shown below, if a zener diode is placed in the
gate circuit between G and A1, the forward
breakover voltage (+VBO) can be altered to
approximately that of the zener voltage (VZ).
a . -VBO is unaffected.
SBS
A2
A1
35
2 . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse
Breakover
Voltage
Breakback
Voltage
V A2-A1
Holding Current (IHO)
36
Forward
Breakover
Voltage
5 Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)

a Construction
Anode
Cathode
P
Gate
36
b . Schematic Symbol
Anode
Cathode
Gate
36
c Theory
1 Similar to the four (4) layer diode except the +VBO can
be altered by using the gate terminal voltage.
d Operation
Reverse
Breakdown
Voltage
-V A-C
36
Much greater than

Forward Breakover
Voltage
Forward
Breakover
Voltage
V A-C
6 . Varactor
a . Construction
36
b . Theory
1 . For testing purposes, a front to back ratio of 10:1
is considered normal.
2 . The size of the depletion region in a varactor
diode is directly proportional to the amount of bias
applied.
a . As forward bias increases, capacitance (Depletion
region) decreases.
b . As reverse bias increases, capacitance (Depletion region)
increases.
3 . In the capacitance equation below, it is shown that

only the distance between plates can be changed.
36
Where: A = Plate Area

k = Constant
d = Distance between plates
C = Ak
d
a . An increase in reverse bias increases the width of the

gap (d) which reduces the capacitance of the PN junction
and vice versa.
4 . Advantage: Allows DC voltage to be used to tune

a circuit for simple remote control or automatic
tuning function.
c . Operation
1 . used to replace old style variable capacitor tuning
circuits.
2 . They are used in tuning circuits of more
sophisticated communications equipment and in
other circuits where variable capacitance is
required.
36
Depletion Region
20F
N
3V
36
5F
N
6V
A . Special Purpose Amplifiers

1 . Differential Amplifier
a . Schematic Diagram
+ VCC
RC (1)
RB (1)
RC (2)
VOUT
RB (2)
VIN (1)
VIN (2)
Q1
Q2
RE
- VEE
36
b . Operation
+ VCC
RC (1)
RB (1)
VIN (1)
++
VOUT
RC (2)
Q1
RB (2)
++
0
VIN (2)
-Q
RE
- VEE
VOUT
(+) / (-) ARE ASSIGNED BY WHICH VOLTMETER
LEAD IS USED AS THE REFERENCE
36
1 . With the polarities shown previously:

a . On positive going signal, Base of Q1 becomes more (+)
with respect to emitter => FB Q1 => ICQ1 => VRC1 =>
VCQ1 (less +). Since ICQ1 => IEQ1 (IE = IC + IB) => VRE
=> Emitter of Q2 becomes less (-) with respect to Base =>
FBQ2 => ICQ2 => VRC2 => VCQ2 (more +). Due to the
polarities assigned by our voltmeter, the difference between
Q1 and Q2 is becoming less => VOUT (Negative Going).
b . On
negative going signal, Base of Q1 becomes less (+) with

respect to emitter => FB Q1 => ICQ1 => VRC1 => VCQ1
(more +). Since ICQ1 => IEQ1 (IE = IC + IB) => VRE =>
Emitter of Q2 becomes more (-) with respect to Base =>
FBQ2 => ICQ2 => VRC2 => VCQ2 (less +). Due to the
polarities assigned by our voltmeter, the difference between
Q1 and Q2 is becoming larger => VOUT (Positive Going).
37
c . With the resulting output achieved, it can be said that

a positive going input on the base of Q1 caused VCQ1
to be inverted => the base of Q1 is called the Inverting
Terminal. Since the positive going input caused VCQ2
to increase in a positive direction, the base of Q2 is
called the Non-Inverting Terminal.
d . If my voltmeter leads were changed, the output of the
amplifier would also change. The Inverting and NonInverting terminals would also change.
37
2 . Operational Amplifiers (OPAMPS)

a .Block Diagram (Basic)
+ vCC
INVERTING
INPUT
DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER
NON-INVERTING
INPUT
VOLTAGE
AMPLIFIER
OUTPPUT
AMPLIFIER
OUTPUT
+
- vEE
37
b . Ideal OPAMP Characteristics

1 . Infinite () Input Impedance
a Draws little or no current from source.
2 . Zero Output Impedance
3 . Infinite () Gain
4 . Infinite () Frequency Response
a Constant gain over any range of input signal
frequencies.
37
c . Types of OPAMPS
1 . Linear (Output is Proportional to Input)
a . Inverting
RF
+
+
0
37
VIN
R1
VOUT
0
b . Non - Inverting
RF
+
R1
+
0
37
VIN
VOUT
0
c . Summing
VIN1
VIN2
VIN3
VIN4
R1
+
0
+
0
+
0
+
0
VIN1
+
R2
VIN2
RF
R3
VIN3
R4
VIN4
R5
37
VOUT
d . Difference
VIN1
VIN2
VIN3
VIN4
VIN5
37
R1
+
0
VIN1
R2
RF
VIN2
+
VIN3
R4
+
0
R3
VIN4
R5
VIN5
VOUT
2 . Non - Linear (Output is not Proportional to Input)

a . Comparator
VREF ATTACHED TO EITHER + OR - TERMINALS

(EXAMPLE SHOWS OUTPUT WITH VREF CONNECTED TO THE
NON-INVERTING TERMINAL.)
+
VIN
VREF
(WAVEFORM WOULD BE INVERTED IF VREF WAS ATTACHED TO

THE INVERTING TERMINAL)
VIN
VOUT 0
37
VREF
VOUT
b . Differentiator
RF
+
0
37
C1
VIN
R1
VOUT
0
c . Integrator
C1
+
+
0
38
VIN
R1
VOUT
0
Field Effect Transistors (FETs)

Field Effect Transistor Types
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) (N and P
Channel)
JFETs are voltage sensitive devices that use voltage
vice current to control output.
Current does not flow through a PN junction; however,
a PN junction is used to control the size of a channel
and to control current flow.
38
N Channel JFET
Depletion Region
P
P
Source
--
Drain
++
38
Channel
Gate
P Channel JFET
Depletion Region
N
++
Drain
--
P
N
Channel
38
Gate
JFET Schematic Symbols
Source
38
Drain
Source
Drain
Gate
Gate
N - Channel
P - Channel
JFET Characteristic Curve

ID
Pinchoff Region
Avalanche Region
0
VSD
Ohmic Region
38
JFET Operation Regions

Ohmic Region: As VSD increases, Drain Current
(ID) increases in a nearly linear manner.
Pinchoff Region: As VSD increases, Drain Current
(ID) remains constant.
Avalanche Region: As VSD increases, Drain
Current (ID) increases uncontrollably and control
of the FET is lost.
38
JFET Operation
The voltage applied to the gate of a FET is
reverse bias in nature and determines the size of
the channel.
When gate voltage (VG) is large enough, the
depletion regions touch and drain current (ID) is
cut off (Channel is Pinched Off). This is called the
Pinchoff Voltage.
With Gate Voltage (VG) held constant, as VSD
increases, Drain Current (ID) increases and vice
versa. This assumes that the FET is operating in
the ohmic region of the characteristic curve.
38
JFET Operation
VG = 0
ID
VG = 1
VG = 2
0
38
VSD
MOSFETs
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors
(MOSFETs)
MOSFETs where originally called IGFETs due
to the insulated gate portion of the the FETs
construction.
MOSFETs are extremely susceptible to damage
from electrostatic discharge.
38
Depletion Mode MOSFET

Source Gate
++
Drain
+
Source
+
Gate
-Drain
Metal Oxide Layer
39
Depletion Mode MOSFET

Schematic Symbols
Drain
Source
P - Channel
Drain
Gate
39
NChannel
Gate
Depletion Mode MOSFET Curve

ID
39
VG
N Channel MOSFET Operation

N Channel Depletion MOSFET Biasing / Operation
Negative (-) on the Source, Positive (+) on the Drain,
and Negative (-) on the gate.
Negative (-) on the gate will induce positive ions in
channel which creates an area within the channel
where there are no majority current carriers.
(Depletion Region)
The amount of Gate voltage (VG) applied will
determine the size of the channel thereby controlling
the amount of current flow through the transistor.
39
P Channel MOSFET Operation

P Channel Depletion MOSFET Biasing / Operation
Positive (+) on the Source, Negative (-) on the Drain, and
Positive (+) on the gate.
Positive (+) on the gate will induce negative ions in channel
which creates an area within the channel where there are no
majority current carriers. (Depletion Region)
The amount of Gate voltage (VG) applied will determine the
size of the channel thereby controlling the amount of current
flow through the transistor.
N & P Channel Depletion MOSFET Biasing / Operation
Depending on the polarity of the gate voltage (VG) applied,
the depletion mode MOSFET can be made to operate either in
the depletion mode or enhancement mode.
39
Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Block Diagrams (N & P Channel)
+
Source Gate
++
Drain
+
Source
Gate
-Drain
P
N
Metal Oxide Layer
39
Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Schematic Symbols (N & P Channel)
Drain
P - Channel
Source
Gate
39
NChannel
Gate
Enhancement Mode MOSFET Curve

ID
39
VG
N Channel MOSFET Operation

N Channel Enhancement MOSFET Biasing /
Operation
The Depletion region Creates / Enhances channel
formation.
39
P Channel MOSFET Operation

P Channel Enhancement MOSFET Biasing /
Operation
The Depletion region Creates / Enhances channel
formation.
39
MOSFET Gate Voltage

Effects of Gate Voltage (VG) on Channel formation
+
Source Gate
N
P
40
++
Drain
+
Source
Gate
-Drain
P
N
Common Source JFET Amplifiers

+VDD
+
Input Signal
RD
++
D
RG
40
VOUT
Common Gate JFET Amplifiers

-
Input Signal
+
0
40
RS
RG
++
RD
+VDD
VOUT
Common Drain JFET Amplifiers

+VDD
Input Signal
++
D
G
RG
40
RS
VOUT
Lessons Learned
MOSFET ruined from ESD < 20 V static
electricity.
Computer laptop not working anymore
when soda spilled on keyboard.
Computer motherboard overheated when
cooling fan seized due to accumulation of
dust over the years.
New computer BIOS chip ruined upon
installation because not using the proper
tool.
40
Logic Circuits
A . Boolean Algebra
1 . Developed by George Boolean, a 19th century
mathematician.
a . His theories were used to develop an assembly of
gears and pulleys to be used to drive a grain elevator.
b . A Boolean expression is nothing more than a
description of the input conditions necessary to get a
desired output.
40
Theorems and Postulates

c . Theorem
1 . A rule concerning a simple relationship
between variables.
d . Postulate
1 . A basic statement that is accepted as valid.
a . Only two statements are true.
b . X = 0 and X = 1
40
Laws and Theorems

1 1. . Distributive Law. (Repeating)
a . Example: A + (B * C) = (A + B) * (A + C)
or A*(B+C) = A*(B+C) = (A*B) + (A*C)
2 . Double Negative Law.
a . A= A
3 . DeMorgans Law
1 A + B = A * B or A*B = A + B
4. Law of Intersection
1. A(1) = A
2. A(0) = 0
5. Law of Union
1. A + 1 = 1
2. A + 0 = A
40
Logic Gates
f Logic Symbols (Gates)
1 . Logical functions can be expressed in one of four (4)
ways.)
a . English Statement
b . Boolean Expression
c . Truth Table
d . Logic Symbol
2 . AND Gate
a . The AND function is considered to be logical
multiplication.
b . Any multiplication symbol can be used to express
the AND function. (X, *, ( )( ), etc)
40
AND Gate
c . English Statement - A and B equals Z
d . Boolean Expression - A X B = Z, AB = Z, (A)(B) = Z,
A*B = Z etc.
e . Truth table
A
B
Z
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
f . Logic Symbol
A
B
40
OR Gate
a . The OR function is considered to be logical
addition.
b . English Statement - A or B equals Z
c . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z
d . Truth table
e . Logic Symbol
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Z
0
1
1
1
A
B
41
NOT Gate
4 . Inverter NOT gate
a . The NOT function is considered to be logical
inversion.
b . English Statement - NOT A equals Z
c . Boolean Expression - A = Z
d . Truth table
A
0
1
Z
1
0
e . Logic Symbol
A
41
NOR Gate
5 . NOR gate
a . English Statement - NOT A or B equals Z
b . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z
c . Truth table
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Z
1
0
0
0
d . Logic Symbol
A
B
41
NAND Gate
6 . NAND gate
a . English Statement - NOT A and B equals Z
b . Boolean Expression - A X B = Z, AB = Z, (A)(B) =
Z, A*B = Z etc.
c . Truth table
A
B
Z
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
d . Logic Symbol
A
Z
B
41
XOR Gate
7 . XOR gate
a . English Statement - A exclusively ord to B equals Z
b . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z
c . Truth table
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
Z
0
1
1
0
d . Logic Symbol
A
B
41
FLIP-FLOP
a . Logic - NAND logic
SET
RESET
41
SET
1
0
1
0
RESET
1
1
0
0
FF OUT
NO CHANGE (HOLD)
Q=1
Q=0
AMBIGUOUS
1 . Set = Clear = 1: This condition is the normal

resting state and it has no change of the FF output
state.
2 . Set = 0, Clear = 1: This will always cause the
output Q to equal 1 where it will remain even after
set returns to a 1 value.
3 . Set = 1, Clear = 0: This will always set the Q
output to a logic 0. It will remain there until the
clear in[put returns to a logic 1 value.
FLIP-FLOP
4 . SET = CLEAR = 1: This condition tries to Set
and Clear the FF continuously and can produce
an ambiguous result. Do not use.
b . Logic- NOR logic
SET
RESET
41
SET
0
1
0
1
RESET
0
0
1
1
FF OUT
NO CHANGE (HOLD)
Q=0
Q=1
AMBIGUOUS
FLIP-FLOP
c . Set - Clear Flip Flop
1 . High Input Responding (Logic High)
Q
SET
FF
CLEAR
SET CLEAR
0
1
0
1
41
0
0
1
1
FF OUT
NO CHANGE (HOLD)
Q=1
Q=0
AMBIGUOUS
FLIP-FLOP
2 . Low Input Responding (Logic low)
Q
SET
FF
CLEAR
SET CLEAR
1
0
1
0
41
1
1
0
0
FF OUT
NO CHANGE (HOLD)
Q=1
Q=0
AMBIGUOUS
FLIP-FLOP
d . JK Flip - Flop
1 . Logic Symbol
J
CLK
K
41
PS
FF
Q
CLR
FLIP-FLOP
2 . Truth Table
INPUTS
PRESET
42
OUTPUTS
CLEAR
CLOCK
1 TOG GLE
Bipolar Integrated Circuit Logic
42
Resistor - Transistor Logic (RTL)
42
Diode - Transistor Logic (DTL)
42
High - Threshold Logic (HTL)
42
Transistor - Transistor Logic (TTL)
42
Direct - Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL)
42
Emitter - Coupled Transistor Logic (ECTL)
42
Integrated Injection Logic (IIL)
42
Oscillating Circuits
42
Transistor Oscillators
1 . Tickler (Armstrong) Oscillator
a . Schematic Diagram
FEEDBACK
Q1
NPN
C1
RC
CB
43
RB
RE
CE
L1
OUTPUT
T1
VCC
Tickler (Armstrong) Oscillator
43
b. Physical Description
1 .) Uses an LC tuned circuit to establish the base
frequency.
2 .) Feedback accomplished by mutual inductance
coupling between the tickler coil and the LC tuned
circuit.
3 .) Uses class C amplifier with self - bias.
c . Operational characteristics
1 .) Output frequency relatively stable.
2 .) Output amplitude is relatively constant.
3 .) RF frequency range
4 .) Local Oscillator in receivers.
5 .) Source in signal generators.
6 .) Radio - frequency oscillators in the medium and
high frequency range.
Hartley Series Fed Oscillator

Schematic Diagram
RB
OUTPUT
Q1
C1
C2
43
C3
L2
L1
RE
VCC
CE

b .) Physical Description
1 .) Can generate a wide range of frequencies and is easy to
tune.
2 .) Current Flows through the tank circuit in the series-fed,
but not used in the shunt fed.
c .) Operational Characteristics
1 .) Ordinary Operation: Class C amplifier with self-bias.
2 .) When output waveform must be constant voltage of a
linear wave shape => Class A amplifier is used.
43

d .) Operation (Voltage applied to circuit)
1 .) Current flows from battery (VCC) through L3 from collector
to emitter, through RE, through L1, and back to the battery.
2 .) The surge of current through coil L1 induces a voltage in L2
to start tank circuit oscillations.
3 .) When current first starts to flow through coil L1, the bottom
of L1 is negative with respect to the top of L2.
4 .) The voltage induced into coil L2 makes the top of L2 positive.
5 .) As the top of L2 becomes positive, the positive potential is
coupled to the base of Q1 via C1.
6 .) An increasing (+) on the base of Q1 causes forward bias to
increase => IC increases => IE increases => IL1 increases and
results in more energy being supplied to the tank circuit which
in turn increases the (+) at the top of L2 and increases the
forward bias on Q1.
43

7 .) This action continues to raise and lower the potential on the
base of Q1 to control the output current.
a .) L1 feeds the tank circuit with energy that is lost during normal
operation. (REGENERATIVE FEEDBACK).
b .) L2s magnetic field expands and collapses to maintain current
flow in the same direction. (Lentzs Law)
c .) L3 develops the output voltage.
43
Colpits Oscillator
Schematic Diagram
L2 (RFC)
RB
Q1
VCC
C3
RE
L1
CE
C1
C2
43
Colpits Oscillator
b . ) Operational Characteristics
1 .) Both the Armstrong and Hartley can be unstable in
frequency due to inter-junction capacitance.
2 .) The Colpits has good frequency stability, is easy to tune,
and can be used over a wide range of frequencies.
3 .) The large value of split capacitance (C1/C2) is in parallel
with the PN junction and minimizes the effect of interjunction capacitance on frequency stability.
4 .) Two capacitors are used in the tank circuit instead of a
center tapped transformer.
5 .) can change the frequency of oscillation either by changing
the capacitance or inductance values.
6 .) No coupling capacitor is used.
7 .) Voltage across C2 is used as the regenerative feedback.
43
Piezoelectric Effect
5 . Piezoelectric Effect Crystals
- A crystal is used as a frequency determining device
and can act in both series and parallel tuned circuits.
- Crystals used in oscillator circuits are thin sheets, or
wafers, cut from natural or synthetic quartz and
ground to a specific thickness to obtain the desired
resonant frequency.
- Crystals are mounted into holders which support
them and provide electrodes by which a voltage is
applied.
- The holder must allow the crystals freedom for
vibration.
43
CRYSTALS
a . Theory
QUARTZ CRYSTAL
ELECTRODES
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
R
CP
L
CS
43
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A CRYSTAL UNIT
INDUCTIVE
CAPACITIVE
IMPEDANCE
CAPACITIVE
FREQUENCY
SERIES RESONANCE
44
PARALLEL RESONANCE
b . Theory
CRYSTALS
1 . Property of a crystal by which mechanical forces

produce electrical charges and, conversely, electrical
charges which produce mechanical forces.
2 . Voltage applied to a crystal produces mechanical
vibrations which, in turn, produce an output voltage at
the natural frequency of the crystal.
3 . Crystals have a much higher frequency stability than
an LC circuit => theyre used in sine - wave generators.
4 . Crystals are capable of producing highly stable output
at a precise frequency.
5 . Crystal types:
- Quartz
- Rochelle Salt
- Tourmaline
44
Crystal Controlled Pierce Oscillator

Schematic
COUT
Q1
RF
RC
C1
Y1
VCC
C2
RB
44
RE
CE
Crystal Controlled IC Chip Oscillator

U304
+12V
A>B
U300
A=B
A0
A<B
A1
A>B
A2
A3
A=B
B0
A<B
A2
A3
A=B
B1
A<B
B2
B3
U301
U300
A0
A>B
A1
A=B
B0
S300
Q1
B1
A>B
Q2
B2
A=B
Q3
B3
A<B
A<B
A0
A1
A2
Q4
A3
Q5
C
U302
A=B
B0
Q6
B1
Q7
B2
Q8
B3
Q9
Q 10
Q 11
D S Q
U306
44
Q
R
Q 12
D S Q
M305B
C R
Q1
Semiconductor Gating Circuits

R1
R1
R2
R2
Simple SCR Gate

Control Circuit
R3
Improved SCR Gate

Control Circuit
R1
R2
C1
C
44
R1
R2
R3
C2
Improvement to
SCR Gate Control
Circuit in B above
SCR Gate Control

Circuit using a
Four-Layer Diode

+10V
R2
R1
R3
Q1
VOUT1
VOUT2
C1
R4
VOUT3
44
Summary
Q. What solid state component in the UJT
Oscillator is used for wave shaping?
A. Capacitor
44
Multivibrators
Monostable (One Shot) Multivibrator
-VCC
R1
R2
C2
INPUT
44
R3
OUTPUT
C1
Q1
R4
Q2
R5
+VBB
Monostable Multivibrator
1 .) Uses
a .) Used for pulse stretching

b .) Used in computer logic systems and Communication /
Navigation systems.
2 .) Operational Characteristics
44
a .) +VBB is connected to the base of Q1 which places Q1 in

cutoff.
b .) Q2 is saturated by -VCC applied to its base through R2.
c .) C1 is fully charged maintaining approximately -VCC on the
base of Q2.
d .) A negative gate signal is applied to the base of transistor Q1
which turns Q1 on and drives it into saturation.
e .) The voltage at the collector of Q1 is then attached to the
base of Q2 which turns Q2 off.
f .) C1 is discharged to attempt to keep VC at Q2 constant. This
maintains Q2 off.
Monostable Multivibrator
44
g .) When C1 is discharged, it can no longer keep

Q2 off.
h .) Q2 turns on and saturates which causes its VC
to go to approximately 0V.
i .) This 0V is applied to the base of Q1 which turns
Q1 off.
j .) Q1s VC goes to -VCC and C1 charges to -VCC.
k .) The multivibrator will remain in this original
state until another gate triggering pulse is
received.
l .) Output from the circuit is taken from Q2s
collector.
m.) Only one trigger pulse is required to generate a
complete cycle of output.
Bistable Multivibrator
b .) Bistable (Flip - Flop) Multivibrator
-VCC
OUTPUT
1
C3
R5
C4
R3
OUTPUT
2
R6
0
R4
Q1
C1
R1
R2
+VBB
Q2
C2
0
45
INPUT
1 .) Physical Description
a .) Multivibrator that functions in one of two stable states as
synchronized by an input trigger pulse.
a .) Circuit is turned on.
b .) One of the two transistors will conduct harder and
thereby reach saturation first. (Assume Q2)
c .) The 0V at the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1
which drives Q1 into cutoff.
d .) The -VCC at the collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2
holding Q2 in saturation.
e .) An input trigger pulse is applied to the bases of both Q1
and Q2 simultaneously. Since Q2 is already in saturation,
there is no effect on Q2.
45
f .) The trigger pulse turns on Q1 and drives the transistor
into saturation.
g .) The 0V on the collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2
driving Q2 into cutoff.
h .) The -VCC on the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of
Q1 holding Q1 in saturation.
i .) This process will continue as long as there are trigger
pulses applied to the circuit.
j .) The output frequency of the waveforms will be
determined by the frequency of the input trigger pulses.
45
Astable Multivibrator
c .) Astable (Free - Running) Multivibrator
-VCC
OUTPUT
1
R1
R2
C1
Q1
45
R3
OUTPUT
2
R4
0
C2
Q2
1 .) Physical Description
a .) Circuit has two outputs but no inputs.
b .) R1 = R4, R2 = R3, C1 = C2, Q1 & Q2 are as close as is
possible in their operating characteristics.
a .) Circuit is turned on.
b .) Assume that Q2 conducts harder than Q1 and goes into
saturation first.
c .) The 0V at the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1
which drives Q1 into cutoff.
d .) C2 begins to charge. C1 is at -VCC and this voltage is
applied to the base of Q2 to hold Q2 in saturation.
45
e .) After a finite period of time, (as set by the RC time
constant of C2 and R3), C2 reaches a voltage value
sufficient to snap Q1 on.
f .) Q1 quickly goes into saturation. The change in voltage
from -VCC to 0Vcauses C1 to discharge.
g .) This voltage is coupled to the base of Q2 Placing / holding
Q2 in cutoff.
h .) C1 begins to charge and will snap Q2 on when a sufficient
voltage value is reached.
i .) In Summary, whenever a transistor saturates, its VC will
change from -VCC to 0V. This voltage will then be coupled to
the base of the other transistor which will drive the other
transistor into cutoff. The frequency of the output
waveform will depend on the RC time constants established
at C1R2 and C2R3.
45

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CENT-112: Fundamentals of

Electricity & Electronics

Dr. Van de Graaff (MIT Professor)

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

A GOOD THING TO KEEP IN

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

THE BEST TOOLS EVER

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

SAFETY SHIELDS ARE EYE

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

SAFETY SHOES ARE NOT FOR

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Always check Electrical Circuits

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

General Safety Rules

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

General Safety Rules Continued

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

General Safety Rules Continued

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Check for response.

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Q1. Who is responsible for safety?

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Basic Electrical Terms

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Electrostatic or Dielectric field: The field or

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Energy Band Diagrams

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Energy Band Diagrams Continued

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Static Device Application

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Basic Electrical Circuit

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

DC: Direct Current

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Basic Instruments & Measurements

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Determining Shunt Resistors

Calculate the other shunt resistors.

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics