Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Diodes
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
Outline of Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Semiconductor Concepts
1.3 The pn Junction
1.4 Analysis of diode circuits
1.5 Applications of diode circuits
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
1.1 Introduction
The diode is the simplest and most
fundamental nonlinear circuit element.
Just like resistor, it has two terminals.
Unlike resistor, it has a nonlinear currentvoltage characteristics.
Its use in rectifiers is the most common
application.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
Physical Structure
Zhou Lingl
(a) diode circuit symbol; (b) iv characteristic; (c) equivalent circuit in the
reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit in the forward direction.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
Characteristics
Conducting in one direction and not in the
other is the I-V characteristic of the diode.
The arrowlike circuit symbol shows the
direction of conducting current.
Forward biasing voltage makes it turn on.
Reverse biasing voltage makes it turn off.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Definition
A crystal of pure and regular lattice structure is
called intrinsic semiconductor.
Materials
Silicon---todays IC technology is based entirely
on silicon
Germanium---early used
Gallium arsenide---used for microwave circuits
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
Two-dimensional representation
of the silicon crystal. The circles
represent the inner core of silicon
atoms, with +4 indicating its
positive charge of +4q, which is
neutralized by the charge of the
four valence electrons. Observe
how the covalent bonds are
formed by sharing of the valence
electrons. At 0 K, all bonds are
intact and no free electrons are
available for current conduction.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
At room temperature,
some of the covalent
bonds are broken by
thermal ionization.
Each broken bond
gives rise to a free
electron and a hole,
both of which become
available for current
conduction.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
10
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
Thermal ionization
Valence electron---each silicon atom has four
valence electrons
Covalent bond---two valence electrons from
different two silicon atoms form the covalent bond
Be intact at sufficiently low temperature
Be broken at room temperature
Zhou Lingl
11
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
Carriers
A free electron is negative charge and a hole
is positive charge. Both of them can move
in the crystal structure. They can conduct
electric circuit.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
12
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
Recombination
Some free electrons filling the holes results in the
disappearance of free electrons and holes.
Thermal equilibrium
At a certain temperature, the recombination rate is
equal to the ionization rate. So the concentration
of the carriers is able to be calculated.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
13
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
Carrier concentration in thermal equilibrium
n p ni
3 EG kT
ni BT e
At room temperature(T=300K)
ni 1.5 10
10
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
carriers/cm3
14
Intrinsic Semiconductor(contd)
Important notes:
ni
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
15
Doped Semiconductor
Doped semiconductors are materials in which
carriers of one kind predominate.
Only two types of doped semiconductors are
available.
Conductivity of doped semiconductor is much
greater than the one of intrinsic semiconductor.
The pn junction is formed by doped
semiconductor.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
16
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
n type semiconductor
Concept
Doped silicon in which the majority of charge carriers are the
negatively charged electrons is called n type semiconductor.
Terminology
Donor---impurity provides free electrons, usually entirely ionized.
Positive bound charge---impurity atom donating electron gives rise
to positive bound charge
carriers
Free electron---majority, generated mostly by ionized and slightly by
thermal ionization.
Hole---minority, only generated by thermal ionization.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
17
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
A silicon crystal
doped by a
pentavalent
element. Each
dopant atom
donates a free
electron and is
thus called a
donor. The doped
semiconductor
becomes n type.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
18
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
p type semiconductor
Concept
Doped silicon in which the majority of charge carriers are the
positively charged holes is called p type semiconductor.
Terminology
acceptor---impurity provides holes, usually entirely ionized.
negatively bound charge---impurity atom accepting hole give rise
to negative bound charge
carriers
Hole---majority, generated generated mostly by ionized and slightly by
thermal ionization.
Free electron---minority, only generated by thermal ionization.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
19
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
A silicon crystal
doped with a
trivalent
impurity. Each
dopant atom
gives rise to a
hole, and the
semiconductor
becomes p type.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
20
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
Carrier concentration for n type
a) Thermal equilibrium equation
nn 0 pn 0 ni
nn 0 pn 0 N D
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
21
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
Carrier concentration for p type
a) Thermal equilibrium equation
p p 0 n p 0 ni
p p0 n p0 N A
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
22
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
Because the majority is much great than the
minority, we can get the approximate equations
shown below:
p p0 N A
nno N D
2
2
for
n
type
for p type
ni
ni
n p0
pn 0
NA
ND
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
23
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
Conclusion
Majority carrier is only determined by the
impurity, but independent of temperature.
Minority carrier is strongly affected by
temperature.
If the temperature is high enough,
characteristics of doped semiconductor will
decline to the one of intrinsic semiconductor.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
24
Doped Semiconductor(contd)
Doping compensation
NA
ND
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
25
Carriers Movement
There are two mechanisms by which holes and free
electrons move through a silicon crystal.
Drift--- The carrier motion is generated by the electrical
field across a piece of silicon. This motion will produce
drift current.
Diffusion--- The carrier motion is generated by the
different concentration of carrier in a piece of silicon. The
diffused motion, usually carriers diffuse from high
concentration to low concentration, will give rise to
diffusion current.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
26
vdrift p E
vdrift n E
J n drift ( qn) ( n E ) qn n E
J p drift qp p E
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
27
J drift qn np p ) E
Resistivity
1 q ( n p )
n
p
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
28
qN D n
For n type
q (n n p p ) 1
qN
For p type
A
p
Temperature coefficient(TC)
TC for resistivity of doped semiconductor is
positive due to negative TC of mobility
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
29
Temperature coefficient(TC)
TC for resistivity of intrinsic semiconductor is
negative due to positive TC of ni .
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
30
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
31
Zhou Lingl
32
Einstein Relationship
Einstein relationship exists between the
carrier diffusivity and mobility:
Dn D p
kT
VT
n p
q
Where VT is Thermal voltage.
VT 25mv
At room temperature
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
33
1.3 pn Junction
The pn junction under open-circuit
condition
I-V characteristic of pn junction
Terminal characteristic of junction diode.
Physical operation of diode.
Junction capacitance
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
34
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
35
Zhou Lingl
36
Procedure of Forming pn
Junction
The procedure of forming pn the dynamic equilibrium of
drift and diffusion movements for carriers in the silicon.
In detail, there are 4 steps:
a) Diffusion
b) Space charge region
c) Drift
d) Equilibrium
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
37
Procedure of Forming pn
Junction
diffusion
Both the majority carriers diffuse across the
boundary between p-type and n-type
semiconductor.
The direction of diffusion current is from p
side to n side.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
38
Procedure of Forming pn
Junction
Space charge region
Majority carriers recombining with minority carriers
results in the disappearance of majority carriers.
Bound charges, which will no longer be neutralized by
majority carriers are uncovered.
There is a region close to the junction that is depleted of
majority carriers and contains uncovered bound charges.
This region is called carrier-depletion region or space
charge region.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
39
Procedure of Forming pn
Junction
Drift
Electric field is established across the space charge
region.
Direction of electronic field is from n side to p side.
It helps minority carriers drift through the junction. The
direction of drift current is from n side to p side.
It acts as a barrier for majority carriers to diffusion.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
40
Procedure of Forming pn
Junction
Equilibrium
Two opposite currents across the junction is
equal in magnitude.
No net current flows across the pn junction.
Equilibrium conduction is maintained by the
barrier voltage.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
41
Zhou Lingl
42
Wdepo
Wdep
2 1
1
(
)Vo
q N A ND
2 1
1
(
) VoV )
q NA ND
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
43
I-V Characteristics
The diode iv
relationship with
some scales
expanded and
others
compressed in
order to reveal
details
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
44
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
45
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
46
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
47
p n ( xn ) p n 0 e
VT
n p ( x p ) n p 0e
VT
Exponential relationship
Small voltage incremental give rise to great incremental
of excess minority carrier concentration.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
48
pn ( x ) pno [ pn ( xn ) pn 0 ]e
n p ( x ) n p 0 [ n p ( x p ) n p 0 ]e
Where
Lp
D p p
Ln
Dn n
Lp
( xx p )
Ln
Zhou Lingl
49
D p pn 0
Lp
SJTU
x xn
dn( x
q
)
dx x x p
Dn n p 0
Ln
)(e
Zhou Lingl
VT
1)
50
D p pn 0
Lp
Dn n p 0
Ln
Dp
Dn
qAni (
)
L p nD Ln n A
2
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
51
nVT
1)
Zhou Lingl
52
I2
I1
2.3nVT lg
I2
I1
Zhou Lingl
53
VD ( on ) 0.7V
VD ( on ) 0.25V
For silicon
For germanium
Zhou Lingl
54
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
55
i Is
Independent of voltage
)
Lp
Ln
Dp
Dn
qAni (
)
L p nD Ln n A
2
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
56
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
57
Zhou Lingl
58
Breakdown Mechanisms
Zener effect
Avalanche effect.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
59
Breakdown Mechanisms
Remember:
pn junction breakdown is not a destructive
process, provided that the maximum
specified power dissipation is not exceeded.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
60
Zener Diode
Circuit symbol
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
61
Junction Capacitance
Diffusion Capacitance
Charge stored in bulk region changes with the change of voltage
across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
Small-signal diffusion capacitance
Depletion capacitance
Charge stored in depletion layer changes with the change of
voltage across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect.
Small-signal depletion capacitance
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
62
Diffusion Capacitance
dQ
According to the definition: Cd
dV
xn
Aq [ pn ( xn ) pno ] L p
pI p
Qn n I n
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
63
Diffusion Capacitance
The expression for diffusion capacitance:
V
d
Cd
[ T I s e VT ]
dV
VT
)IQ
VT
)IQ
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
64
Depletion Capacitance
According to the definition: C j dQ
dVR V
R VQ
Wdep
2 1
1
[
(
)(V0 vR )
q N A NB
C j0
(1
SJTU
VR
Vo
Zhou Lingl
65
Depletion Capacitance
A more general formula for depletion capacitance is :
C j0
Cj
V
(1 R ) m
V0
1
1
Where m is called grading coefficient. m ~
3
2
1
If the concentration changes sharply, m
2
Forward-bias condition, C j 2C j 0
Reverse-bias condition, C j Cd
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
66
Junction Capacitance
Remember:
a) Diffusion and depletion capacitances are
incremental capacitances, only are applied
under the small-signal circuit condition.
b) They are not constants, they have relationship
with the voltage across the pn junction.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
67
Methods of analysis
Graphical analysis
Iterative analysis
Modeling analysis
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
68
i I s (e
I se
I s
nVT
nVT
1)
Forward biased
Reverse biased
Zhou Lingl
69
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
70
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
71
The Constant-Voltage-Drop
Model
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
72
Small-Signal Model
Symbol convention:
iD (t ) Lowercase symbol, uppercase subscript stands
for total instantaneous qualities.
I D Uppercase symbol, uppercase subscript stands
for dc component.
id (t ) Lowercase symbol, lowercase subscript stands
for ac component or incremental signal qualities.
I d (t ) Uppercase symbol, lowercase subscript stands
for the rms(root-mean-square) of ac.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
73
Small-Signal Model
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
74
Small-Signal Model(contd)
Incremental resistance:
V
rd T
I DQ
Zhou Lingl
75
High-Frequency Model
High frequency model
rs
rd
SJTU
cj
Zhou Lingl
76
VZ VZ 0 I Z rZ
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
77
Method of Analysis
Load line
Diode
characteristic
Q is the
intersect point
Visualization
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
78
Method of Analysis
Iterative analysis
Refer to example 3.4
Model Analysis
Refer to example 3.6 and 3.7
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
79
Voltage regulator
Limiter
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
80
Half-Wave Rectifier
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
81
Half-Wave Rectifier
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
82
Full-Wave Rectifier
(a) circuit
(b) transfer characteristic assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for
the diodes
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
83
Full-Wave Rectifier
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
84
(a) circuit
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
85
Zhou Lingl
86
Peak Rectifier
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
87
Voltage Regulator
We define:
Lineregula tion
Vo
Loadregula tion
Vo
SJTU
Vs
I L
Zhou Lingl
88
Limiter
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
89
Limiter
Applying a sine wave to a limiter can result in clipping off its two peaks.
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
90
Soft Limiting
SJTU
Zhou Lingl
91