Chapter 4: Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions

CHAPTER 4
CHEMICAL
QUANTITIES
AND
AQUEOUS
REACTIONS
Global Warming
Scientists have measured an average
0.6 C rise in atmospheric

temperature since 1860
During the same period atmospheric
CO2 levels have risen 25%
Are the two trends causal?
The Sources of Increased CO2
One source of CO2 is the combustion reactions of fossil
fuels we use to get energy

Another source of CO2 is volcanic action
How can we judge whether the increase in CO2 is natural
or due to our use of fossil fuels?
Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e
Quantities in Chemical Reactions

The amount of every substance used and made in a
chemical reaction is related to the amounts of all the

other substances in the reaction
Law of Conservation of Mass
Balancing equations by balancing atoms
The study of the numerical relationship between
chemical quantities in a chemical reaction is called

stoichiometry.
Stoichiometric Calculations
The coefficients in the balanced equation give

the ratio of moles of reactants and products.
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Stoichiometry
stoichiometry: a numerical relationship between
chemical quantities in a balanced chemical equation

allows one to predict the amounts of products that form in a
chemical reaction based on the amounts of reactants
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)

For every molecule of N2 consumed in the
reaction there are 3 molecules of H 2 and 2
molecules of NH3.
Equivalence for Chemical Reactions

Since chemists dont usually think of things in terms of
molecules, you can transform these relationships into mole to

mole values.
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)

you can determine several equivalent statements~ (mole ratios)
For every 3 moles of H2 you can produce 2 moles of NH3.
For every 1 mole of N2 you can produce 2 moles of NH3.
For every 3 moles of H2 you will need 1 mole of N2 to perform
this reaction.
Mole Mole Relationships

putting stoichiometric relationships to work
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)

If we have 3 moles of N2 and more than enough H2, how
much NH3 can we make?

1 N2 2 NH3
conversion factor 2 moles NH3

1 mole N2
moles N2 moles NH3
3 moles N2 x 2 moles NH3 = 6 moles NH3
1 mole N2
Practice Problems (moles to moles)

3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)
How many moles of N2 are needed to completely
react with 6.75 moles of H2?
How many moles of H2 are required to produce 4.50
moles of NH3?
Practice Problems (grams to

grams)
3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)
How many grams of N2 are needed to completely
react with 45.30 grams of H2?
How many grams of NH3 form when 16.90 grams of
N2 react?
11
Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in 2007 by the

combustion of 3.5 x 1015 g gasolne
Assuming that gasoline is octane, C8H18, the
equation for the reaction is

2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
12
Which Produces More CO2;

Volcanoes or Fossil Fuel Combustion?
Our calculation just showed that the world produced 1.1 x
1016 g of CO2 just from petroleum combustion in 2007

1.1 x 1013 kg CO2
Estimates of volcanic CO2 production are 2 x 1011 kg/year

This means that volcanoes produce less than 2% of the
CO2 added to the air annually

2.0 1011 kg yr
13 kg
1.1 10
yr
100% 1.8%
How Many Cookies Can I Make?
You can make cookies until
you run out of one of the

ingredients.
Once this family runs out of
sugar, they will stop making
cookies (at least any cookies
you would want to eat).
How Many Cookies Can I Make?
In this example the sugar
would be the limiting

reactant, because it will limit
the amount of cookies you
can make.
Limiting Reactants
The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the
smallest stoichiometric amount.
In other words, its the reactant youll run out of first (in this
case, the H2).
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
Limiting Reactant Concept

Reactants will not always be present in the exact
amounts necessary for all reactants to be converted

completely into products.
limiting reactant (limiting reagent): the reactant
that controls the amount of products that can be

produced
a limiting reactant is used up before the other reactants; all
other reactants are said to be in excess
Limiting Reactants
In the example below, the O2 would be the excess
reagent.
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
Determining the Limiting Reactant

1.
Calculate the amount (moles, mass, volume) of

product formed when using the amount of each
reactant given
2.
Whichever reactant produces the smallest amount

(smallest mass) of product is your limiting reactant
3.
All other reactants are in excess
Sample Problem
2 Al (s) + 6 HCl (aq) 2 AlCl3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
How many moles of H2 are produced when 5.00 moles
Al react with 5.00 moles HCl?

Limiting reactant
Reactant in excess
Moles H2 produced
Theoretical Yield
The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product
that can be made.

In other words its the amount of product possible as calculated
through the stoichiometry problem.
This is different from the actual yield, which is the
amount one actually produces and measures when

performing the experiment.
Sample Problem
How many grams of H2 are produced when 4.55 grams
of Al reacts with 6.05 grams of HCl?
Percent Yield
One finds the percent yield by comparing the amount
actually obtained (actual yield) to the amount it was
possible to make (theoretical yield).
Actual Yield
Percent Yield =
Theoretical Yield
x 100
Percent Yield
How many grams of H2 are produced when 4.55 grams
of Al reacts with 6.05 grams of HCl?
For the problem above, what would the percent yield be
if only 0.100 grams of hydrogen gas were obtained from

the reaction?
200
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Sample Problems
The reaction below is performed using 1.56
grams of copper(II) nitrate and 1.00 grams of

sodium carbonate.
What is the theoretical yield for the experiment?
What would the percent yield be, if only 0.875 grams of copper(II)
carbonate was obtained?
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CuCO3(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)
Sample Problem
32.7 g Zn reacted with 18.23 g HCl. If 0.252 g H 2 was
captured, what is the percent yield of H2 obtained?

Zn (s) + 2 HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Solutions
Solutions are defined as
homogeneous mixtures of
two or more pure
substances.
The solvent is present in
greatest abundance.
All other substances are
solutes.
27
Describing Solutions
Because solutions are mixtures, the composition can vary from
one sample to another

pure substances have constant composition
saltwater samples from different seas or lakes have different amounts of
salt
So to describe solutions accurately, we must describe how
much of each component is present

we saw that with pure substances, we can describe them with a single
name because all samples are identical
28
Solution Concentration
Qualitatively, solutions are often
described as dilute or concentrated

Dilute solutions have a small
amount of solute compared to

solvent
Concentrated solutions have a
large amount of solute compared to

solvent
29
ConcentrationsQuantitative
Descriptions of Solutions
A more precise method for describing a solution is to
quantify the amount of solute in a given amount of

solution
Concentration = amount of solute in a given amount of
solution
occasionally stated in terms of the amount of solvent
30
Solution Concentration
Molarity
Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution
Used because it describes how many molecules of solute in
each liter of solution
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters
Preparing 1 L of a 1.00 M NaCl

Solution
31
What is the molarity of a solution that has 25.5 g

KBr dissolved in 1.75 L of solution?
What Is the molarity of a solution containing 3.4 g of

NH3 in 200.0 mL of solution?
33
Using Molarity in Calculations

Molarity shows the relationship between the moles of
solute and liters of solution

If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M, then 1 liter of
solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar
2 liters = 4.0 moles sugar
0.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar
1 L solution : 2 moles sugar
or
What volume of 0.125 M NaOH (in Liters) contains

a total of 0.255 mol of NaOH?
Determine the mass of CaCl2 in 1.75 L of 1.50 M

CaCl2 solution.
What mass of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate would

be required to prepare 250.0 mL of a 1.00 M solution
of CuSO45 H2O?
How would you prepare 250.0 mL of 0.150 M

CaCl2?
36
Dilution
Often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock
solutions
To make solutions of lower concentrations from these stock
solutions, more solvent is added
the amount of solute doesnt change, just the volume of solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
The concentrations and volumes of the stock and new
solutions are
inversely proportional
M1V1 = M2V2
37
To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH

to make a 3.00 M NaOH solution?
What is the concentration of a solution prepared by

diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
How would you prepare 200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution

from a 2.0 M solution?
38
Solution Stoichiometry
Because molarity relates the moles of solute to the liters
of solution, it can be used to convert between amount of

reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction
39
What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to completely

react with 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 in the reaction
below?
2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)

If 43.8 mL of 0.107 M HCl is needed to neutralize
37.6 mL of Ba(OH)2 solution. What is the molarity of
the barium hydroxide solution?
2 HCl + Ba(OH)2 BaCl2 + 2 H2O

40
What Happens When a Solute Dissolves?

There are attractive forces between the solute particles
holding them together

There are also attractive forces between the solvent
molecules
When we mix the solute with the solvent, there are
attractive forces between the solute particles and the
solvent molecules
If the attractions between solute and solvent are strong
enough, the solute will dissolve
Dissociation
When an ionic substance
dissolves in water, the

solvent pulls the individual
ions from the crystal and
solvates them.
This process is called
dissociation.
Electrolytes
The result is a solution with
free moving charged

particles able to conduct
electricity
An electrolyte is a
substance that dissociates

into ions when dissolved in
water.
A nonelectrolyte may
dissolve in water, but it

does not dissociate into
ions when it does so.
43
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes

Materials that dissolve in
water to form a solution that

will conduct electricity are
called electrolytes
Materials that dissolve in
water to form a solution that

will not conduct electricity are
called nonelectrolytes
44
Molecular View of
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
To conduct electricity, a material must have charged
particles that are able to flow
Electrolyte solutions all contain ions dissolved in the
water
ionic compounds are electrolytes because they dissociate into
their ions when they dissolve
Nonelectrolyte solutions contain whole molecules
dissolved in the water
generally, molecular compounds do not ionize when they
dissolve in water
the notable exception being molecular acids

45
Salt vs. Sugar Dissolved in Water
ionic compounds
dissociate into ions when
they dissolve
molecular compounds
do not dissociate when
they dissolve
46
Acids
Acids are molecular compounds that ionize when they
dissolve in water
the molecules are pulled apart by their attraction for the water
when acids ionize, they form H+ cations and also anions
The percentage of molecules that ionize varies from one
acid to another
Acids that ionize virtually 100% are called strong acids
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
Acids that only ionize a small percentage are called weak
acids
HF(aq) H+(aq) + F(aq)

Electrolytes
A strong electrolyte
dissociates completely
when dissolved in water.
ionic compounds and
strong acids
A weak electrolyte only
dissociates partially when

dissolved in water.
weak acids
When compounds containing a polyatomic ion dissolve, the

polyatomic ion stays together
HC2H3O2(aq) H+(aq) + C2H3O2(aq)
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48
Practice Write the equation for the process that occurs

when the following strong electrolytes dissolve in water
CaCl2
CaCl2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl(aq)
HNO3
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3(aq)
(NH4)2CO3
(NH4)2CO3(aq) 2 NH4+(aq) + CO32(aq)
49
Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Some ionic compounds, such as NaCl, dissolve very
well in water at room temperature
Other ionic compounds, such as AgCl, dissolve
hardly at all in water at room temperature
Compounds that dissolve in a solvent are said to be soluble

Compounds that do not are said to be insoluble
NaCl is soluble in water, AgCl is insoluble in water

the degree of solubility depends on the temperature
even insoluble compounds dissolve, just not enough to be
meaningful
50
When Will a Salt Dissolve?

Predicting whether a compound will dissolve in water is
not easy
The best way to do it is to do some experiments to test
whether a compound will dissolve in water, then develop
some rules based on those experimental results
we call this method the empirical method
52
Practice Determine if each of the

following is soluble in water
KOH
KOH is soluble because it contains K+
AgBr
AgBr is insoluble; most bromides are soluble,

but AgBr is an exception
CaCl2
CaCl2 is soluble; most chlorides are soluble,

and CaCl2 is not an exception
Pb(NO3)2
Pb(NO3)2 is soluble because it contains NO3
PbSO4
PbSO4 is insoluble; most sulfates are soluble,

but PbSO4 is an exception
53
Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reactions are reactions
in which a solid forms when we mix two

solutions
the solid (insoluble product) is called a
precipitate
When one mixes ions that form compounds
that are insoluble (as could be predicted by

the solubility guidelines), a precipitate is
formed.
55
No Precipitate Formation =
No Reaction
KI(aq) + NaCl(aq) KCl(aq) + NaI(aq)
all ions still present, no reaction
56
Predict the products and balance the equation for

each interaction below:
KCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)
Na2S(aq) + CaCl2(aq)
57
Write the balanced chemical equation for

the precipitation reaction between an
aqueous solution of potassium carbonate
and an aqueous solution of nickel(II)
chloride.
Write an equation for the reaction that

takes place when an aqueous solution of
(NH4)2SO4 is mixed with an aqueous
solution of Pb(C2H3O2)2.
Molecular Equation
The molecular equation lists the reactants and
products in their molecular form.
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq)
AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
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Complete Ionic Equation

In the complete ionic equation all strong electrolytes
(strong acids, strong bases, and soluble ionic salts) are

dissociated into their ions.
This more accurately reflects the species that are found
in the reaction mixture.
Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
AgCl (s) + K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
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Net Ionic Equation

To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that
does not change from the left side of the equation to the
right.
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

AgCl (s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
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Net Ionic Equation

right.
The only things left in the equation are those things that
change (i.e., react) during the course of the reaction.
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
AgCl (s)
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Net Ionic Equation

right.
The only things left in the equation are those things that
change (i.e., react) during the course of the reaction.
Those things that didnt change (and were deleted from
the net ionic equation) are called spectator ions.
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

AgCl (s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
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Writing Net Ionic Equations

1.
2.
3.
4.
Write a balanced molecular equation.

Dissociate all strong electrolytes.
Cross out anything that remains unchanged from
the left side to the right side of the equation.
Write the net ionic equation with the species that
remain.
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64
Write the complete ionic and net

ionic equation for each
K2SO4(aq) + 2 AgNO3(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + Ag2SO4(s)
Na2CO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
For each of the following, write the molecular

equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic
equation.
An aqueous solution of barium chloride is added to an
aqueous solution of sodium sulfate.
An aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide is added to
an aqueous solution of magnesium bromide.
66
Acid-Base Reactions
Also called neutralization reactions because the acid and
base neutralize each others properties
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

The net ionic equation for an acid-base reaction is
H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l)

as long as the salt that
water
forms is soluble in
67
Acids and Bases in Solution

Acids ionize in water to form H+ ions
more precisely, the H from the acid molecule is donated to a
water molecule to form the hydronium ion, H 3O+
most chemists use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably
Bases dissociate in water to form OH ions

bases, such as NH3, that do not contain OH ions, produce
OH by pulling H off water molecules
acid + base salt + water

the H+ (acid) combines with the OH (base) to make
water
The cation from the base combines with the anion
from the acid to make a salt
Common Acids
68
Common Bases
69
70
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
71
For each of the following, write the molecular

equation, complete ionic equation, and net ionic
equation.
HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + Sr(OH)2(aq)
72
Titration
Often in the lab, a solutions concentration
is determined by reacting it with another

material and using stoichiometry this
process is called titration
In the titration, a known volume of a
solution with a known concentration is

reacted with a known volume of a solution
until the reaction is just completed.
At this point, called the endpoint, the reactants
are in their stoichiometric ratio.

the known solution is added slowly from an
instrument called a buret
73
Titration
an indicator is added that changes color when the

solution undergoes large changes in acidity/alkalinity
At the endpoint of an acid-base titration, the number of
moles of H+ equals the number of moles of OH
(equivalence point)
74
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl solution of unknown

concentration requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH solution to
reach the end point. What is the concentration of the unknown
HCl solution?
What is the concentration of NaOH solution that requires

27.5 mL to titrate 50.0 mL of 0.1015 M H2SO4?
75
Gas-Evolving Reactions
Some reactions form a gas directly from the ion
exchange
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
Other reactions form a gas by the decomposition of one
of the ion exchange products into a gas and water

K2SO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2SO3(aq)
H2SO3(aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g)
76
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
77
Compounds that Undergo

Gas-Evolving Reactions
78
Write a balanced chemical equation for the

following gas evolving reactions.
HCl(aq) + Na2SO3(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + CaS(aq)
79
Other Patterns in Reactions

The precipitation, acid-base, and gas-evolving reactions all
involve exchanging the ions in the solution

Other kinds of reactions involve transferring electrons from
one atom to another these are called
oxidation-reduction reactions
also known as redox reactions
many involve the reaction of a substance with O2(g)
4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) 2 Fe2O3(s)
80
Combustion as Redox
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
81
Redox without Combustion

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s)
2 Na 2 Na+ + 2 e
Cl2 + 2 e 2 Cl
82
Reactions of Metals with Nonmetals

Consider the following reactions:
4 Na(s) + O2(g) 2 Na2O(s)

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s)
The reactions involve a metal reacting with a nonmetal
In addition, both reactions involve the conversion of
free elements into ions
Na2O 2 Na+ & O2

NaCl Na+ & Cl
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
An oxidation occurs
when an atom or ion

loses electrons.
A reduction occurs
when an atom or ion

gains electrons.
One cannot occur
without the other.
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Oxidation Numbers
To determine if an oxidation-reduction reaction has
occurred, we assign an oxidation number to each element
in a neutral compound or charged entity.
Oxidation number (oxidation state) is a hypothetical
charge assigned to the atom.
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Oxidation Numbers
Elements in their elemental form have an oxidation
number of 0.
The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same
as its charge.
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Oxidation Numbers
Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers,
although some are positive in certain compounds or

ions.
Oxygen has an oxidation number of 2, except in the peroxide
ion in which it has an oxidation number of 1.

Hydrogen is 1 when bonded to a metal, +1 when bonded to a
nonmetal.
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Oxidation Numbers
Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers,
although some are positive in certain compounds or

ions.
Fluorine always has an oxidation number of 1.
The other halogens have an oxidation number of 1 in most
binary compounds; they can have positive oxidation numbers,

however, most notably in oxyanions.
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Oxidation Numbers
The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral
compound is 0.
The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion
is the charge on the ion.
200
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Practice Problems
Determine the ox. #s of each element for the following:
MgCrO4
ClO4 N2
FeN
MnO4-
90
Assign an oxidation state to each

element in the following
Br2
K+
LiF
CO2
SO42
Na2O2
91
Oxidation and Reduction

Another Definition
Oxidation occurs when an atoms oxidation state increases
during a reaction
Reduction occurs when an atoms oxidation state decreases
during a reaction
92
OxidationReduction
Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously
if an atom loses electrons another atom must take them
The reactant that reduces an element in another
reactant is called the reducing agent

the reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized
The reactant that oxidizes an element in another
reactant is called the oxidizing agent

the oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 Na+Cl(s)

Na is oxidized, Cl is reduced
Na is the reducing agent, Cl2 is the oxidizing agent
93
Assign oxidation states, then determine the

element
oxidized and reduced, and determine the
oxidizing agent
and reducing agent
in +the following
reaction:
3+
Fe + MnO4 + 4 H Fe
Sn4+ + Ca Sn2+ + Ca2+
F2 + S SF4
+ MnO2 + 2 H2O

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CHAPTER 4

0.6 C rise in atmospheric

During the same period atmospheric

CO2 levels have risen 25%

Are the two trends causal?

The Sources of Increased CO2

One source of CO2 is the combustion reactions of fossil

fuels we use to get energy

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e

Quantities in Chemical Reactions

chemical reaction is related to the amounts of all the

The study of the numerical relationship between

chemical quantities in a chemical reaction is called

The coefficients in the balanced equation give

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

chemical quantities in a balanced chemical equation

chemical reaction based on the amounts of reactants

3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)

Equivalence for Chemical Reactions

molecules, you can transform these relationships into mole to

3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)

Mole Mole Relationships

3 H2(g) + N2(g) 2 NH3(g)

much NH3 can we make?

conversion factor 2 moles NH3

Practice Problems (moles to moles)

react with 6.75 moles of H2?

How many moles of H2 are required to produce 4.50

Practice Problems (grams to

react with 45.30 grams of H2?

How many grams of NH3 form when 16.90 grams of

Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in 2007 by the

equation for the reaction is

Tro: Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2/e

Which Produces More CO2;

Our calculation just showed that the world produced 1.1 x

1016 g of CO2 just from petroleum combustion in 2007

Estimates of volcanic CO2 production are 2 x 1011 kg/year

CO2 added to the air annually

How Many Cookies Can I Make?

You can make cookies until

you run out of one of the

2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

How Many Cookies Can I Make?

In this example the sugar

would be the limiting

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smallest stoichiometric amount.

case, the H2).

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)

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Limiting Reactant Concept

amounts necessary for all reactants to be converted

that controls the amount of products that can be

other reactants are said to be in excess

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Determining the Limiting Reactant

Calculate the amount (moles, mass, volume) of

Whichever reactant produces the smallest amount

All other reactants are in excess

Al react with 5.00 moles HCl?

that can be made.

through the stoichiometry problem.

This is different from the actual yield, which is the