Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting
Forming
Sheet metal processing
Powder- and Ceramics Processing
Plastics processing
Cutting
Joining
Surface treatment

Cutting
Processes that involve removal of material from solid workpiece
Sawing
Shaping (or planing),
Broaching, drilling,
Grinding,
Turning
Milling
Important concept: PROCESS PLANNING
Fixturing and Location
Operations sequencing
Setup planning
Operations planning

Sawing
A process to cut components, stock, etc.
Process character: Precision: [very low,, very high]; MRR: low

Sawing

band saw

hand-held circular saw

circular saw blade

hand-held hacksaw

band saw blade and blade types

wave teeth (for sheet-metal)

right-left teeth (for soft materials)

raker teeth (for hard, brittle materials)

Shaping
A process to plane the surface of a workpiece (or to reduce part thickness
Process character: High MRR, medium Surface finish, dimension control

(a)
tool-post

(b)
pivot

slide

(c)
chip

chip

tool-post rotates as
slide returns;
workpiece shifted;
next stroke

Broaching
Precise process for mass-production of complex geometry parts
(complicated hole-shapes)
Process character: High MRR, Very good surface, dimension control, Expensive
Broaching machine

Broaching tools

Complex hole shapes cut by broaching

Drilling, Reaming, Boring

Processes to make holes
Process character: High MRR, Cheap, Medium-high surface, dimension control

D
d

Twist drill

Countersink

Core drilling: to increase

diameter of existing holes

Counterbore

Reamer

Spade drill: for

large, deep holes

Center drill

Step drill: for

stepped holes

Gun drill with holes for coolant

Drilling basics

- softer materials small point angle; hard, brittle material: larger point angle
- Length/Diameter ratio is large gun-drilling (L/D ratio ~ 300)
- Very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm): cant drill (why?)
- drilled hole > drill: vibrations, misalignments,
- Tight dimension control: drill ream
- Spade drills: large, deep holes
- Coutersink/counterbore drills: multiple diameter hole screws/bolts heads

Tapping
Processes to make threads in holes
Process character: low MRR, Cheap, good surface, dimension control

Manual tap and die set

Automated tapping

Grinding, Abrasive Machining

Processes to finish and smooth surfaces
Process character: very low MRR, very high surface, dimension control

1. To improve the surface finish of a manufactured part

(a) Injection molding die: milling manual grinding/electro-grinding.
(b) Cylinders of engine: turning grinding honing lapping
2. To improve the dimensional tolerance of a manufactured part
(a) ball-bearings: forging grinding [control: < 15 m]
(b) Knives: forged steel hardened grinding
3. To cut hard brittle materials
(a) Semiconductor IC chips: slicing and dicing
4. To remove unwanted materials of a cutting process
(a) Deburring parts made by drilling, milling

Abrasive tools and Machines

abrasive wheels, paper, tools

diamond grinding wheel for slicing silicon wafers

Grinding wheels

Grinding machine
Centerless grinding

diamond dicing wheel for silicon

Turning
Processes to cut cylindrical stock into revolved shapes
Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control

spindle

chuck

tool-post

tail-stock

tail-stock wheel

depth of cut, d

feed, f

lead-screw
carriage wheel

carriage

cross-slide wheel

Turning operations
depth of cut, d

feed, f

turning

facing

taper

face groove

profile cut

boring, internal groove

groove cut

drilling

cut-off

thread cut

knurling

Fixturing parts for turning

steps

part in a 3-jaw chuck

4-jaw chuck holding a non-rotational part A long part held between live center (at spindle)
and dead center (at tailstock)

A collet type work-holder; collets are common in

automatic feeding lathes the workpiece is a long
bar; each short part is machined and then cut-off;
the collet is released, enough bar is pushed out to
make the next part, and the collet is pulled back to
grip the bar; the next part is machined, and so on.

Milling
Versatile process to cut arbitrary 3D shapes
Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control

[source: www.hitachi-tool.com.jp]

[source: www.phorn.co.uk]

[source: Kalpakjian & Schmid]]

Common vertical milling cutters

Flat
Ballnose
Bullnose

Programmed point
on cutter

Up and Down milling

(a) Conventional, or Up milling

- chip thickness goes UP;
- cutting dynamics: smoother

(b) Climb, or Down milling

- chip thickness goes DOWN;
- cutting dynamics: bad for forged/cast
parts with brittle, hard scales on surface

Fixtures for Milling: Vise

V-slot vise jaws hold cylindrical parts horizontally/vertically

Vise fixed to a milling table, holding rectangular part

Universal angle vise can index parts along any direction

Vise on sine-bar to hold part at an angle

relative to the spindle

Fixtures for Milling: Clamps

Clamp support
(clamp and support have teeth)

Workpiece
Strap clamp

Parallel bars raise the part

above table surface allow
making through holes

Bolt (bolt-head is inserted into T-slot in table)

Process Analysis
Fundamental understanding of the process improve, control, optimize
Method:

Observation modeling verification

Every process must be analyzed; [we only look at orthogonal 1-pt cutting]
ve

vf

Geometry of the cutting tool

end cutting edge angle

lead cutting edge angle

back rake angle

side rake angle

side clearance angle

front clearance angle

depth of cut

Modeling: Mechanism of cutting

Chip

Friction between
tool, chip in this
region

Chip forms by
shear in this region

Tool

Old model: crack propagation

Current model: shear

Tool wear: observations and models

High stresses, High friction, High temp (1000C) tool damage

Adhesion wear:
fragments of the workpiece get welded to the tool surface at high temperatures;
eventually, they break off, tearing small parts of the tool with them.
Abrasion:
hard particles, microscopic variations on the bottom surface of the chips
rub against the tool surface
Diffusion wear:
at high temperatures, atoms from tool diffuse across to the chip;
the rate of diffusion increases exponentially with temperature;
this reduces the fracture strength of the crystals.

Tool wear, Tool failure, Tool life criteria

crater wear

chip

tool
workpiece
flank wear

1. Catastrophic failure (e.g. tool is broken completely)

2. VB = 0.3 mm (uniform wear in Zone B), or VBmax = 0.6 mm (non-uniform flank wear)
3. KT = 0.06 + 0.3f, (where f = feed in mm/revolution).

Built-up edge (BUE)

Deposition, work hardening of a thin layer of the workpiece material

on the surface of the tool.
negative rake angle
(for cutting hard, brittle materials)

BUE poor surface finish

Likelihood of BUE decreases with
(i) decrease in depth of cut,
(ii) increase in rake angle,
(iii) use of proper cutting fluid during machining.

Process modeling: empirical results

Experimental chart showing relation of tool wear with f and V

[source: Boothroyd]

Modeling: surface finish

Relation of feed and surface finish

Analysis: Machining Economics

How can we optimize the machining of a part ?

Identify the objective, formulate a model, solve for optimality

Typical objectives: maximum production rate, and/or minimum cost

Are these objectives compatible (satisfied simultaneously) ?

Formulating model: observations hypothesis theory model

Analysis: Machining Economics..

Formulating model: observations hypothesis theory model
Observation:
A given machine, tool, workpiece combination has finite max MRR
Hypothesis:
Total volume to cut is minimum Maximum production rate
Model objective:
Find minimum volume stock for a given part
-- Near-net shape stocks (use casting, forging, )
-- Minimum enclosing volumes of 3D shapes
Models:
- minimum enclosing cylinder for a rotational part
- minimum enclosing rectangular box for a milled part
Solving:
-- requires some knowledge of computational geometry

Analysis: Machining Economics..

Model objective:
Find optimum operations plan and tools for a given part

Example:

or

or
??
Model: Process Planning
- Machining volume, tool selection, operations sequencing
Solving:
- in general, difficult to optimize

Analysis: process parameters optimization

Model objective:
Find optimum feed, cutting speed to [maximize MRR]/[minimize cost]/
Feed:
Higher feed higher MRR
Finish cutting:

surface finish feed

Given surface finish, we can find maximum allowed feed rate

Process parameters optimization: feed

Rough cutting:
MRR cutting speed, V
MRR feed, f

cannot increase V and f arbitrarily

V MRR; surface finish f(V); energy per unit volume MRR f(V)
Tool temperature V, f; Friction wear V; Friction wear f
For a given increase in MRR:

V lower tool life than f

Optimum feed: maximum allowed for tool [given machine power, tool strength]

Process parameters optimization: Speed

Model objective:
Given optimum feed, what is the optimum cutting speed

provided upper limits, but not optimum

Need a relation between tool life and cutting speed (other parameters being constant)
Taylors model (empirically based): V tn = constant

Process parameters optimization: Speed

One batch of large number, Nb, of identical parts
Replace tool by a new one whenever it is worn
Total non-productive time = Nbtl
tl = time to (load the stock + position the tool + unload the part)
Nb be the total number of parts in the batch.
Total machining time = Nbtm
tm = time to machine the part
Total tool change time = Nttc
tc = time to replace the worn tool with a new one
Nt = total number tools used to machine the entire batch.
Cost of each tool = Ct,
Cost per unit time for machine and operator = M.

Average cost per item:

C pr

Nt
Nt
Mt l Mt m M
tc
Ct
Nb
Nb

Process parameters optimization: Speed

Average cost per item:

C pr

Nt
Nt
Mt l Mt m M
tc
Ct
Nb
Nb

Let: total length of the tool path = L

L
tm
V
t = tool life
Taylors model

L
MLV 1
V

Nt = (Nb tm)/t
Vtn = C

Nt / N b = t m / t

t = C 1/n / V1/n = C/V1/n

Nt
tm
L V (1 n ) / n
L V 1/ n

Nb
t
V C
C

Process parameters optimization: Speed

Average cost per item:

C pr

Nt
Nt
Mt l Mt m M
tc
Ct
Nb
Nb

L
MLV 1
V
Nt
L V (1 n ) / n

Nb
C

C pr Mt l MLV

L
( M t c C t ) V (1 n ) / n
C

Process parameters optimization: Speed

C pr Mt l MLV

L
( M t c C t ) V (1 n ) / n
C

Optimum speed (to minimize costs)

dC pr
dV

0 MLV

L
(1 n) (1 2 n ) / n
(M t c Ct )
V
C
n

MC
n

V *
( M tc Ct ) (1 n)

Optimum speed (to minimize time)

Average time to produce part:

t pr

Nt
tl t m
tc
Nb

Process parameters optimization: Speed

Optimum speed (to minimize costs)

MC
n

V *
(
M
t

C
)
(
1

n
)
c
t

Optimum speed (to minimize time)

Average time to produce part:

t pr

load/unload time
machining time

t pr

Nt
tl t m
tc
Nb
L
tm
V

Nt
L V (1 n ) / n

Nb
C

Nt
tl t m
tc
Nb
tool change time

Substitute, differentiate, solve for V*

Process Planning

The process plan specifies:

operations
tools, path plan and operation conditions
setups
sequences
possible machine routings
fixtures
S4
S3

4 x counterbored holes

S10

S5

S6

S2

S1

S7

S9

groove 5mmX5mm

S8

Process Planning

Job # :

Stock: bar stock diameter: 105

Batch size= N pieces

Fixture: 3-jaw chuck on lathe; Strap clamp + parallel bars on drill-press

Legend:

4 x counterbored holes

Description
Setup 1: Part in chuck
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S4 to 104
groove 5mmX5mm

[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S2 to 55

[HSS 1-pt tool] face S1
[HSS 1-pt tool] face S3

S4
S3

[Drill in tailstock] Center drill

S10

S5

S6

S2

[Drill in tailstock] Drill 32

Setup 2: Chuck part on S4
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S5 to 60,
face S10, fillet edge on S4

S1

S7

[HSS 1-pt tool] Face S6

[5mm groove cutter] Groove S9
Setup 3: Clamp part on Drill press,
Locate using: S3, S7
[Center drill] mark, center-drill 4 holes

S9
S8

[7.5mm Drill] drill 4 holes 7.5

[10mm counterbore] Counterbore 5mm

V: cutting speed m/min

f : feed mm/rev
S: spindle rpm
d: depth of cut mm
L: Tool path length, min
Tc: cutting time, min
Ts: setup time, min

Tc

Ts

Operation sequencing examples (Milling)

step hole
or
hole step

big-hole step small hole

or
small hole step big-hole
or

Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting
Forming
Sheet metal processing
Powder- and Ceramics Processing
Plastics processing
Cutting
Joining
Surface treatment

Joining Processes
Types of Joints:
1. Joints that allow relative motion (kinematic joints)
2. Joints that disallow any relative motion (rigid joints)
Uses of Joints:
1. To restrict some degrees of freedom of motion
2. If complex part shape is impossible/expensive to manufacture
3. To allow assembled product be disassembled for maintenance.
4. Transporting a disassembled product is sometimes easier/feasible

Joining Processes

Fusion welding:

joining metals by melting solidification

Solid state welding:

joining metals without melting

Brazing:

joining metals with a lower mp metal

Soldering:

joining metals with solder (very low mp)

Gluing:

joining with glue

Mechanical joining:

screws, rivets etc.

Fusion welding
Flame: 3000C

Oxy-acetylene welding

Arc welding

robotic
manual

arc: 30,000C

Gas shielded arc welding

MIG

TIG

Argon

Al

Ti, Mg,
Thin sections

Fusion welding..

Deep, narrow welds

Aerospace, medical, automobile body panels

Plasma arc welding

Faster than TIW, slower than Laser

Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers, power ~ 100kW

Laser beam welding

Fast, high quality, deep, narrow welds

deep, narrow welds, expensive

Electron beam welding

Solid state welding

Diffusion welds between very clean, smooth pieces of metal, at 0.3~0.5Tm

Cold welding (roll bonding)

coins, bimetal strips

Solid state welding..

Ultrasonic welding

Ultrasonic wire bonder

25m Al wire on IC Chip

Medical, Packaging, IC chips, Toys

Materials: metal, plastic
- clean, fast, cheap

Resistance welding
Welding metal strips: clamp together, heat by current

Spot welding

Spot welding

Spot welds on a pan

Robotic Spot welding on auto body

Seam welding

resistance seam welding

resistance welded petrol tank

Brazing
Tm of Filler material < Tm of the metals being joined

Torch brazing
Common Filler materials: copper-alloys, e.g. bronze
Common applications: pipe joint seals, ship-construction

Soldering
Tin + Lead alloy, very low Tm (~ 200C)
Main application: electronic circuits

Furnace brazing

Gluing
Adhesive type
Acrylic
Anaerobic

Notes
two component thermoplastic; quick
setting; impact resistant, strong impact
and peel strength
thermoset; slow, no-air curing cures in
presence of metal ions

Applications
fiberglass, steel, plastics, motor
magnets, tennis racquets

sealing of nut-and-bolts, closefitting holes and shafts, casting

micro-porosities etc.
Epoxy
strongest adhesive; thermoset; high tensile metal parts (especially Nickel),
strength; low peel strength
ceramic parts, rigid plastics
Cyanoacrylate
thermoplastic; high strength; rapid aerobic [common brand: Crazy glue]
curing in presence of humidity
plastics, rubber, ceramics, metals
Hot melt
thermoplastic polymers; rigid or flexible; footwear, cartons and other
applied in molten state, cure on cooling
packaging boxes, book-binding
Polyacrylate esters Pressure sensitive adhesives
all types of tapes, labels, stickers,
(PSA)
decals, envelops, etc.
Phenolic
thermoset, oven curing, strong but brittle acoustic padding, brake lining,
clutch pads, abrasive grain bonding
Silicone
thermoset, slow curing, flexible
gaskets and sealants
Formaldehyde
thermoset
joining wood, making plywood
Urethane
thermoset, strong at large thickness
fiberglass body parts, concrete gap
filling, mold repairs
Water-based
cheap, non-toxic, safe
wood, paper, fabric, leather

Mechanical fasteners

(a) Screws

(b) Bolts, nuts and washers

(a) pneumatic carton stapler

(b) Clips

(c) Rivets

(c) A circlip in the gear drive of a kitchen mixer

Plastic wire clips

Plastic snap-fasteners
Wire conductor: crimping

Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting
Forming
Sheet metal processing
Powder- and Ceramics Processing
Plastics processing
Cutting
Joining
Surface treatment

Surface treatment, Coating, Painting

Post-production processes
Only affect the surface, not the bulk of the material

1. Improving the hardness

2. Improving the wear resistance
3. Controlling friction, Reduction of adhesion, improving the lubrication, etc.
4. Improving corrosion resistance
5. Improving aesthetics

Mechanical hardening

Shot peening

Shot peening precision auto gears

[source: www.vacu-blast.co.uk]

Laser peening

[source: www.uwinint.co.kr]

Case hardening
Process

Dopant

Procedure

Notes

Applications

Carburizing

Low-carbon steel part in 0.5 ~ 1.5mm case gets

oven at 870-950C with to 65 HRC; poor
dimension control
excess CO2

Gears,
cams,
shafts, bearings

CarboNitriding

C and N

Low-carbon steel part in 0.07~0.5mm case, up

oven at 800-900C with to 62 HRC, lower
distortion
excess CO2 and NH3

Nuts,
gears

Cyaniding

C and N

Low-carbon steel part in 0.025~0.25mm

bath of cyanide salts with up to 65 HRC
30% NaCN

Nitriding

Low-carbon steel part in 0.1~0.6mm case, up to tools,

shafts
oven at 500-600C with 1100 HV
excess NH3

Boronizing

Part heated in oven with Very

hard,
wear Tool and
Boron containing gas
resistant
case, steels
0.025~0.075mm

bolts,

case, nuts,
bolts,
gears, screws
gears,

die

Vapor deposition
Deposition of thin film (1~10 m) of metal

Sputtering: important process in IC Chip manufacture

Thermal spraying

High velocity oxy-fuel spraying

Thermal metal powder spray

Tungsten Carbide / Cobalt Chromium Coating

on roll for Paper Manufacturing Industry

Plasma spray
[source: www.fst.nl/process.htm]

Electroplating
Deposit metal on cathode, sacrifice from anode

chrome-plated auto parts

copper-plating

Anodizing

Metal part on anode: oxide+coloring-dye deposited using electrolytic process

Painting
Type of paints:
Enamel: oil-based; smooth, glossy surface
Lacquers: resin based; dry as solvent evaporates out; e.g. wood varnish
Water-based paints: e.g. wall paints, home-interior paints

Painting methods
Dip coating: part is dipped into a container of paint, and pulled out.
Spray coating: most common industrial painting method
Electrostatic spraying: charged paint particles sprayed to part using voltage
Silk-screening: very important method in IC electronics mfg

Painting

Electrostatic Spray Painting

Spray Painting in BMW plant

Silk screening

Summary

These notes covered processes: cutting, joining and surface treatment

We studied one method of modeling a process, in order to optimize it
We introduced the importance and difficulties of process planning.

Further reading: Chapters 24, 21, 30-32: Kalpajian & Schmid