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memory
Learning
is acquiring new or
modifying existing
knowledge, behaviors,
skills, valus, or preferences
and may involve
synthesizing different
types of information.
The ability to learn is
possessed by humans,
animals and some
machines.
Progress over time tends
to follow learning curves.
Learning domains
Learning may occur
consciously or without
conscious awareness.
There is evidence for
human behavioral
learning prenatally, in
which habituation has
been observed as early
as 32 weeks into
gestation, indicating that
the central nervous
system is sufficiently
developed and primed
for learning and memory
to occur very early on in
development
Types:
Visual, acoustic, and
semantic encodings are
the most intensively used.
Other encodings are also
used.
encoding
Visual encoding
Visual encoding is the process of
encoding images and visual sensory
information.
Visual sensory information is
temporarily stored within our iconic
memory and working memory
before being encoded into
permanent long-term storage.
Baddeleys model of working
memory states that visual
information is stored in the visuospatial sketchpad.
The amygdala is a complex
structure that has an important role
in visual encoding. It accepts visual
input in addition to input from other
systems and encodes the positive or
negative values of conditioned
stimuli.
Acoustic encoding
Acoustic encoding is the processing
and encoding of sound, words, and all
other auditory input for storage and
later retrieval.
encoding
Other senses
Tactile encoding is the
processing and encoding of
how something feels,
normally through touch.
Neurons in the primary
somatosensory cortex (S1)
react to vibrotactile stimuli
by activating in
synchronisation with each
series of vibrations.[6] Odors
and tastes may also lead to
encode.
In general encoding for
short-term storage (STS) in
the brain relies primarily on
acoustic rather than
semantic encoding
Semantic encoding
Semantic encoding is the
processing and encoding of
sensory input that has
particular meaning or can
be applied to a context.
Various strategies can be
applied such as chunking
and mnemonics to aid in
encoding, and in some
cases, allow deep
processing, and optimizing
retrieval.
Encoding
Mapping
activity
Elderly people showed no significant
activation in areas activated in young
people during encoding, however they
did show right prefrontal activation
during recognition.
Thus it may be concluded that as we
grow old, failing memories may be the
consequence of a failure to adequately
encode stimuli as demonstrated in the
lack of cortical and hippocampal
activation during the encoding
process.
Recent findings in studies focusing on
patients with posttraumatic stress
disorder demonstrate that amino acid
transmitters, glutamate and GABA, are
intimately implicated in the process of
factual memory registration, and
suggest that amine neurotransmitters,
norepinephrine and serotonin, are
involved in encoding emotional
memory.
Molecular perspective
The process of encoding is
not yet well understood,
however key advances
have shed light on the
nature of these
mechanisms.
Encoding begins with any
novel situation, as the
brain will interact and draw
conclusions from the
results of this interaction.
These learning
experiences have been
known to trigger a cascade
of molecular events
leading to the formation of
memories.
Synaptic plasticity
The encoding
process
Storage
Recall
in memory refers to
the retrieval of events
or information from
the past. Along with
encoding and storage,
it is one of the three
core processes of
memory.
Two-stage theory
The two-stage theory states
that the process of recall begins
with a search and retrieval
process, and then a decision or
recognition process where the
correct information is chosen
from what has been retrieved.
In this theory, recognition only
involves the latter of these two
stages, or processes, and this is
thought to account for the
superiority of the recognition
process over recall.
Recognition only involves one
process in which error or failure
may occur, while recall involves
two.
However, recall has been found
to be superior to recognition in
some cases, such as a failure to
recognize words that can later
be recalled.
recall
Encoding specificity
The theory of encoding
specificity finds similarities
between the process of
recognition and that of recall.
The encoding specificity
principle states that memory
utilizes information from the
memory trace, or the situation
in which it was learned, and
from the environment in which
it is retrieved.
Encoding specificity helps to
take into account context cues
because of its focus on the
retrieval environment, and it
also accounts for the fact
recognition may not always be
superior to recall
Subcortical
structures
Hippocampus
Cerebellum
Amygdala
Basal ganglia
Cortical structures
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
hippocampus
The hippocampus is
located in the medial
temporal lobe of the
brain
In this lateral view of
the human brain, the
frontal lobe is at left,
the occipital lobe at
right, and the temporal
and parietal lobes
have largely been
removed to reveal the
hippocampus
underneath.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus
The hippocampus is a
structure in the brain
that has been associated
with various memory
functions. It is part of the
limbic system, and lies
next to the medial
temporal lobe. It is made
up of two structures, the
Ammons Horn, and
the Dentate gyrus, each
containing different
types of cells
Cognitive maps
There is evidence that
the hippocampus
contains cognitive maps
in humans. In one study,
single-cell recordings
were taken from
electrodes implanted in
a rats hippocampus,
and it was found that
certain neurons
responded strongly only
when the rat was in
certain locations.
Encoding
Damage to the hippocampus
and surrounding area can
cause anterograde amnesia,
the inability to form new
memories.
This implies that the
hippocampus is important not
only for storing cognitive
maps, but for encoding
memories
hippocampus
The hippocampus
hippocampus
The hippocampus
as a whole has the
shape of a curved
tube, which has
been analogized
variously to a
seahorse, a ram's
horn (Cornu
Ammonis, hence the
subdivisions CA1
through CA4), or a
banana.[3
hippocampu
s
Over the years,
three main ideas of
hippocampal
function have
dominated the
literature: inhibition,
memory, and space.
Role
hippocampu
s
that animals with
Role in memory
Psychologists and
neuroscientists generally
agree that the
hippocampus has an
important role in the
formation of new memories
about experienced events (
episodic or
autobiographical memory).
Part of this role is
hippocampal involvement
in the detection of novel
events, places and stimuli.
hippocampu
s
Location:medial to the
temporal horn of the
lateral ventriclein the
deep anterior temporal
lobe
Architecture:seahorse
shape structure
composeof the dentate
gyrus, CA regions, and
subiculum. It has 3
layer neuronal layers
Circuitry:
Internal
circuitry:entorhinal
cortex-dentate gyrusCA3-CA1-subiculumentorhinal cortex
Major external circuit:
Papez circuit:
hippocampus-fornixmammilary bodyanterior nucleus of
thalamus-cingulate
cortex-temporal
cortex-hippocampus
Inputs
Septal nuclei-fornix (cholinergic
input vital for memory and
degerates in alzheimer`s
disease
Multiple cortical areasentorhinal cortex-dentate gyrus
Inputs to entorhinal: sensory
assosiation
cortices,prefronatal,amygdala,o
lfactory
Inputs to subiculum:
amygdala,cingulate cortex
Inputs to hippocampus:raphe
nuclei (5HT),locus coeruleus
(NE)
Inputs outputs
Outputs
Subiculum-fornixmammillary body
CA1/CA3-fornixseptal
nuclei,nucleus
accumbens,hypot
halamus,cingulat
e cortex,frontal
lobe
location
Main
component
s
location
4 parts
In terms of anatomy, the basal ganglia are divided by
anatomists into four distinct structures, depending on
how superior or rostral they are (in other words
depending on how close to the top of the head they
are):
Two of them, the striatum and the pallidum, are
relatively large;
the other two, the substantia nigra and the
subthalamic nucleus, are smaller.
In the illustration to the right, two coronal sections of
the human brain show the location of the basal ganglia
components.
Of note, and not seen in this section, the subthalamic
nucleus and substantia nigra lie farther back (
posteriorly) in the brain than the striatum and pallidum.
Mesencephalon
(Midbrain),
Substantia nigra
pars compacta
(SNc), Substantia
nigra pars
reticulata (SNr)
Circuit connections
excitatory glutamatergic
pathways, inhibitory
GABAergic pathways, and
modulatory dopaminergic
pathways (Abbreviations: GPe:
globus pallidus external; GPi:
globus pallidus internal; STN:
subthalamic nucleus; SNc:
substantia nigra compacta;
SNr: substantia nigra
reticulata)
In order to understand the
complex circuitry of the basal
ganglia, one has to first
understand the important
participants in this circuit.
Parts of the basal ganglia are
in direct communication with
the thalamus and the cortex.
The cortex, thalamus, and the
basal ganglia are, therefore,
the three main participants in
the circuit created by the
basal ganglia.
circuit
Cortex (stimulates)
Striatum (inhibits)
GPe (less inhibition of
STN) STN
(stimulates) "SNrGPi" complex
(inhibits) Thalamus
(is stimulating less)
Cortex (is stimulating
less) Muscles, etc.
(hypokinetic state)
Parkinson vs huntington
disease
Information about the functions of the basal ganglia
comes from anatomical studies, from physiological
studies carried out mainly in rats and monkeys, and
from the study of diseases that damage them.
The greatest source of insight into the functions of the
basal ganglia has come from the study of two
neurological disorders, Parkinson's disease and
Huntington's disease.
For both of these disorders, the nature of the neural
damage is well understood and can be correlated with
the resulting symptoms. Parkinson's disease involves
major loss of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra;
Huntington's disease involves massive loss of medium
spiny neurons in the striatum.
Basal ganglia
Involved in initiation and modulation
of movement, receive input from
cerebral cortex, process it, and relay
back to cerebral cortex via thalamus
Consists: corpus striatum (striatum +
pallidum)(striatum:nucleus caudatus+
putamen) ,globus pallidus (pallidum,
+ putamen: nucleus lentiformis);
amygdala, claustrum
Nucleus caudatus
C shaped, is lateral to the lateral ventricle,
composes: head, body and tail
Head, bulges into the frontal horn of lateral
ventricle, connect to the lentiform nucleus;
body sweeps into a c shaped with the
lateral ventricle, capsula interna ;tail
located in the temporal lobe superior and
lateral to the temporal horn of the lateral
ventricle, connect to amigdaloid body
Degeneration lead : Huntington`s disesae
Substantia nigra
Located in the ventral midbrain, appears brown,
neuromelanin pigmentation
Pars compacta- has dopamine producing neuron,
project to striatum and facilitate movement
Pars reticularis-is an output nucleus
Degeneration causes: parkinson`s disease;
Chorea=lesion is above and medial subtantia
nigra; athetosis= it is above and lateral to it
Ballism, hemibalismus =subthalamic nucleus;
tremor =lesion between subtantia nigra and red
nucleus
amygdala
location
Subdivision
amygdala
The amygdalae (/mdli/
; singular: amygdala; also
corpus amygdaloideum; Latin
, from Greek ,
amygdal, 'almond', 'tonsil',
listed in the Gray's Anatomy
as the nucleus amygdal)
[1] are almond-shaped groups
of nuclei located deep within
the medial temporal lobes of
the brain in complex
vertebrates, including
humans.
Shown in research to perform
a primary role in the
processing and memory of
emotional reactions, the
amygdalae are considered
part of the limbic system.
Connections
The amygdala sends
impulses to the
hypothalamus for activation
of the
sympathetic nervous system,
to the
thalamic reticular nucleus for
increased reflexes, to the
nuclei of the trigeminal nerve
and the facial nerve, and to
the ventral tegmental area,
locus coeruleus, and
laterodorsal tegmental nucleu
s
for activation of dopamine,
norepinephrine and
epinephrine.
Coronal section of brain
through intermediate mass of
third ventricle.
amygdala
Role amygdala
during fear conditioning, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the
amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations with
memories of the stimuli. The association between stimuli and the aversive
events they predict may be mediated by long-term potentiation, a sustained
enhancement of signalling between affected neurons.
Memories of emotional experiences imprinted in reactions of synapses in the
lateral nuclei elicit fear behavior through connections with the central nucleus
of the amygdalae and the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (BNST). The central
nuclei are involved in the genesis of many fear responses, including freezing
(immobility), tachycardia (rapid heartbeat), increased respiration, and stresshormone release. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the acquisition and
expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of classical conditioning of
emotional responses.[3]
The amygdalae are also involved in appetitive (positive) conditioning. It seems
that distinct neurons respond to positive and negative stimuli, but there is no
clustering of these distinct neurons into clear anatomical nuclei.
However, lesions of the central nucleus in the amygdala have been shown to
reduce appetitive learning in rats. Lesions of the basolateral lesions do not
exhibit the same effect.
Research like this indicates that different nuclei within the amygdala have
different functions in appetitive conditioning
Amygdala
The amygdala
Located below the
hippocampus in the
medial temporal lobes
are two amygdalae
(singular "amygdala").
The amygdala are
associated with both
emotional learning and
memory, as it
responds strongly to
emotional stimuli,
especially fear.
Memory of fear
conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning
tests have shown the
active role of the
amygdala in fear
conditioning in rats.
Research involving
lesions to the basolateral
nucleus have shown a
strong association with
memories involving fear.
The central nucleus is
linked with the behavioral
responses that are
dependent on the
basolaterals reaction to
fear.
Memory consolidation
Emotional experiences and
events are somewhat fragile
and take a while to be
completely set into memory.
This slow process, referred
to as consolidation, allows
emotions to influence the
way the memory is stored.
The amygdala is involved in
memory consolidation,
which is the process of
transferring information that
is currently in working
memory into ones long-term
memory. This process is also
known as memory
modulation.
amygdala
Almond shaped, located anterior to the hippocampus
in the anterior portion of medial temporal lobe
Inputs:major= temporal lobe, olfactory, limbic,
autonomic information from orbitofrontal, cingulate
gyrus, hypothalamus, tegmentum, brainstem: DA
(ventral tegmental area), NE(raphe nuclei),
5HT(locus coeruleus)
Outputs: major= hypothalamus, thalamus,
striatum,septal nuclei, hippocampus, multiple
cortical areas
Function: regulates emotional interpretation, relating
to fear and anger
Limbic system
A system of nuclear structures and tracts
found in a ring that encircles the thalamus
Multiple structures interact with each other
and with other cortical and subcortical
structure, function serves major regulator of
emotional control and memory encoding
Damage can lead aggression, apathy,
anterograde amnesia (inability to form new
memories)
Gyrus cinguli
Frontal lobe
Sometimes we experience
situations where
information becomes
separated, such as when
we recall something, but
cannot remember where
we remember it from; this
is referred to as a source
monitoring error
The frontal lobes are also
involved in the ability to
remember what we need
to do in the future; this is
called prospective
memory
Temporal lobe
The temporal lobes are a
region of the cerebral
cortex that is located
beneath the Sylvian
fissure on both the left
and right hemispheres of
the brain.
Lobes in this cortex are
more closely associated
with memory and in
particular
autobiographical
memory
In regard to memory,
temporal lobe damage
can impair long-term
memory
Thus, general
semantic knowledge
or more personal
episodic memories of
ones childhood could
be affected.
Parietal lobe
The parietal lobe is
located directly behind the
central sulcus, superior to
the occipital lobe and
posterior to the frontal
lobe, visually at the top of
the back of the head.
The make up of the
parietal lobe is defined by
four anatomical
boundaries in the brain,
providing a division of all
the four lobes.
The parietal lobe plays important roles in integrating sensory information from
various parts of the body, knowledge of numbers and their relations, [1] and in the
manipulation of objects. Portions of the parietal lobe are involved with visuospatial
processing. Although multisensory in nature, the posterior parietal cortex is often
referred to by vision scientists as the dorsal stream of vision (as opposed to the
ventral stream in the temporal lobe). This dorsal stream has been called both the
'where' stream (as in spatial vision) [2] and the 'how' stream (as in vision for action).
[3]
Various studies in the 1990s found that different regions of the posterior parietal
cortex in Macaques represent different parts of space.
The lateral intraparietal (LIP) contains a map of neurons (retinotopically-coded
when the eyes are fixed[4]) representing the saliency of spatial locations, and
attention to these spatial locations. It can be used by the oculomotor system for
targeting eye movements, when appropriate. [5]
The ventral intraparietal (VIP) area receives input from a number of senses (visual,
somatosensory, auditory, and vestibular [6]). Neurons with tactile receptive fields
represented space in a head-centered reference frame. [6] The cells with visual
receptive fields also fire with head-centered reference frames [7] but possibly also
with eye-centered coordinates[6]
The medial intraparietal (MIP) area neurons encode the location of a reach target in
nose-centered coordinates.[8]
The anterior intraparietal (AIP) area contains neurons responsive to shape, size, and
orientation of objects to be grasped [9] as well as for manipulation of hands
themselves, both to viewed [9] and remembered stimuli.[10]
Occipital lobe
Frontotemporal lobar
degeneration (FTLD) is a
common form of dementia due to
the degeneration of the frontal
and temporal lobes. Studies have
found significant decreases in the
essential needs for proper
functioning in these lobes.
The autobiographical domain in
memory is largely affected by
this disease. In one study, FTLD
patients were interviewed and
asked to describe a significant
event from five different periods
of their lives.
Using the interview and different
methods of imaging, the
experimenters hoped to find links
between patterns of brain
volume loss and performance in
the interview
Parkinson's disease
Recall: neuroanatomy
Attention
The effect of attention on memory
recall has surprising results. It
seems that the only time attention
largely affects memory is during the
encoding phase . During this phase,
performing a parallel task can
severely impair retrieval success.
It is believed that this phase
requires much attention to properly
encode the information at hand, and
thus a distractor task does not allow
proper input and reduces the
amount of information learned.
Motivation
Motivation is a factor that
encourages a person to perform and
succeed at the task at hand. It can
be in the form of presented
incentive, or personal fear of failure.
Any form of motivation thus
generally leads a person to better
recall. In an experiment done by
Roebers, Moga and Schneider
(2001), participants were placed in
either forced report, free report or
free report plus incentive groups. In
each group, they found that the
amount of correct information
recalled did not differ, yet in the
group where participants were given
an incentive they had higher
accuracy results.
This means that presenting
participants with an encouragement
to provide correct information
motivates them to be more precise.
Interference
In the absence of interference, there are two
factors at play when recalling a list of items:
the recency and the primacy effects. The
recency effect occurs when the short-term
memory is used to remember the most recent
items, and the primacy effect occurs when
the long-term memory has encoded the
earlier items. The recency effect can be
eliminated if there is a period of interference
between the input and the output of
information extending longer than the holding
time of short-term memory (1530 seconds).
This occurs when a person is given
subsequent information to recall preceding
the recall of the initial information.[48] The
primacy effect, however, is not affected by
the interference of recall. The elimination of
the last few items from memory is due to the
displacement of these items from short term
memory, by the distracting task. As they have
not been recited and rehearsed, they are not
moved into long-term memory and are thus
lost. A task as simple as counting backwards
can change memory recall; however an
empty delay interval has no effect.[49] This is
because the person can continue to rehearse
the items in their working memory to be
remembered without interference
Context
Context-dependency effects on recall are
typically interpreted as evidence that the
characteristics of the environment are
encoded as part of the memory trace and
can be used to enhance retrieval of the
other information in the trace.[52] In other
words, you can recall more when the
environments are similar in both the
learning and recall phases. Context cues
appear to be important in the retrieval of
newly learned meaningful information. In
a classic study by Godden and Baddelley
(1975), they demonstrated that deep-sea
divers recalled their training more
effectively when trained underwater,
rather than being trained on land.[53] An
academic application would be that
students may perform better on exams by
studying in silence, because exams are
usually done in silence
State-dependent memory
State-dependent retrieval is demonstrated
when material learned under the influence of
a drug is best recalled in that same drug
state. A study by Carter and Cassady (1998)
showed this effect with antihistamine.[55] In
other words, if you study while on hay fever
tablets, then you will recall more of what you
studied if you test yourself while on
antihistamines in comparison to testing
yourself while not on antihistamines after
having studied on antihistamines.
A study by Block and Ghoneim (2000) found
that, relative to a matched group of healthy,
non-drug-using controls, heavy marijuana use
is associated with small but significant
impairments in memory retrieval.[56]Cannabis
induces loss of internal control and cognitive
impairment, especially impairment of
attention and memory, for the duration of the
intoxication period.[57]
Stimulants, such as cocaine, amphetamines
or caffeine are known to improve recall in
humans.[58] However, the effect of prolonged
use of stimulants on cognitive functioning is
very different from the impact on one-time
users. Some researchers have found
stimulant use to lower recall rates in humans
after prolonged usage
Gender
Consistently, females perform better than
males on episodic memory tasks including
delayed recall and recognition. However,
males and females do not differ on working,
immediate and semantic memory tasks. In
general, neuro-psychological observations
suggest that anterior lesions cause greater
deficits in females than in male. It has been
proposed that the gender differences in
memory performance reflect underlying
differences in the strategies used to process
information, rather than anatomical
differences. However, gender differences in
cerebral asymmetry received support from
morphometric studies showing a greater
leftward asymmetry in males than in
females, meaning that men and women use
each side of their brain to a different
extent.[59] There is also evidence for a
negative recall bias found in women, which
means females in general are more likely
than males to recall their mistakes.[60] In a
eyewitness study done by Dan Yarmey
(1991) from the University of Guelph, he
found that women were significantly more
accurate than men in accuracy of recall for
weight of suspects
Phenomena
The phenomenological account
of recall is referred to as
metacognition, or "knowing
about knowing". This includes
many states of conscious
awareness known as feeling-ofknowing states, such as the tipof-the-tongue state. It has been
suggested that metacognition
serves a self-regulatory purpose
whereby the brain can observe
errors in processing and actively
devote resources to resolving
the problem. It is considered an
important aspect of cognition
that can aid in the development
of successful learning strategies
that can also be generalized to
other situations.[62]
The cerebellum
(Latin for little brain) is a
region of the brain that plays
an important role in
motor control. It is also
involved in some
cognitive functions such as
attention and language, and
probably in some emotional
functions such as regulating
fear and pleasure responses.[
Its movement-related
functions are the most clearly
understood, however.
The cerebellum does not
initiate movement, but it
contributes to coordination,
precision, and accurate timing.
cerebellu
m
Cerebellum
The cerebellum
The cerebellum ("little brain") is a
structure located at the rear of the
brain, near the spinal cord
It looks like a miniature version of
the cerebral cortex, in that it has a
wavy, or convoluted surface.
This separation
makes sense if the
cerebellum, which is
far removed from
the hippocampus, is
responsible for
procedural learning.
There is disagreement
about the best way to
describe the functions of
the lateral cerebellum: It is
thought to be involved in
planning movement that is
about to occur, in
evaluating sensory
information for action, and
in a number of purely
cognitive functions as well.
There is
considerable
evidence that the
cerebellum plays
an essential role in
some types of
motor learning.