Introduction to Networking

CT043-3-1
Standard network protocols

Topics and Structure of the

lesson
Layers of the OSI Model

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture YOU should be
able to:
Describe the function in each layer in the OSI
model

Key Terms you must be able to

use:
If you have mastered this topic, you should be
able to use the following terms correctly in your
assignments and exams:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

Open System Interconnection

The OSI Model:
The "model of models" in the networking world is
the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model
In some books, the OSI model is referred to as
Open System Interconnect, rather than
Interconnection
The latter, however, is the usage on the Web site
of the ISO

The OSI model is simply a layered framework

to illustrate the design of a network system.

ISO OSI Reference Model

Understanding the abstract architecture is key
to understanding the concrete network
The ISO Seven layer OSI Model is a Conceptual model that
describes many types of network.
The Internet is a fairly unsophisticated example.
Each layer represents a higher level of abstraction in the process of
data communications
Complexities of low level transmission of signals representing the
data are hidden from users at the application level (top layer)

Please Do Not Throw Salted Pickles Away

OSI Model: Information Flow

Application

Provides network services to user

applications

Application

Presentation

Coding and conversion to ensure both

ends use a common data format

Presentation

Session

Establish, maintain, & terminate the

conversation between endpoint
processes

Session

Transport

Process ID, Error detection, Flow

control

Transport

Network

Network Addressing & Routing

Network

Data-Link

Interface Address, Error detection, Flow

control

Data-Link

Physical

Voltage levels, Maximum transmission

distances, Physical connectors

Physical

The Structure of the OSI Model

The OSI Model is made up of seven layers, each
representing a step in the network
communications process (the different stages
that data must go through to travel from one
device to another over a network)
Each layer of the OSI serves the layer above it
to allow for a smooth transmission of
information.

The Structure of the OSI Model

Each layer in the OSI model performs a
specific task in the network
communication process, and then passes
the data up or down to the next layer
As the data passes through the layers,
each layer adds its own information in the
form of headers, which are added to the
original data

10
Slide 10 of 33

11
Slide 11 of 33

The Structure of the OSI Model

Each layer on a source
node corresponds to
the same layer on the
destination node.
The information can
only be removed by the
correct layer and the
rest is passed to the
layer above.
This would allow for a
smooth and error-free
transmission of
information.

Physical Layer
The function of the physical layer is simply to allow a
stream of bits to be transmitted over a physical medium.
It is concerned with the procedures of the interfaces and
the physical line itself in order to facilitate the transmission
over the link.
It defines the physical characteristics of the network such
as connections, voltage levels and timing.
The data frames are translated into transmittable signals
and put on the wire to travel across the network (or, in the
case of wireless media, sent over the airwaves or by other
means).
The physical layer protocols turn all those 0s and 1s into
electrical impulses or pulses of light

Physical Layer

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for node-to-node
delivery.
Its primary concern is the ability to connect a
sender to the receiver on one network - provides
reliable transit of data across a physical network
link
This layer has been further divided into two
sublayers:
Media Access Control (MAC)
Logical Link Control (LLC)

Data Link Layer

MAC Addressing
The MAC sublayer handles physical addressing
issues
In fact, the physical address, which on an Ethernet or
a Token Ring network is a hexadecimal number that
is permanently burned into the chip on the network
interface card (NIC), is called the MAC address
The media access control method allocates access
to the network by computers. Media access control
occurs, appropriately enough, at the MAC sublayer
Example: 0A-B1-C2-D3-E4-F5

Data Link Layer

The LLC Layer and Logical Topology
At the LLC sublayer, the logical topology of
the network is defined
This sublayer is responsible also for providing
a link, or interface, between the MAC
sublayer following it and the network layer
above it

Data Link Layer

Data Link Layer

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for getting the data packets
to their destinations
It allows for connectivity between source and destination
across multiple networks by using logical address (network
address/IP address). Routers can use this layer to determine
how to forward packets. Because of this, much of the design
and configuration work for internetworks happens at this layer.
Nodes which are connected in one network usually do not use
the functions of the network layer.
This layer also handles prioritization of data types (the basis
of Quality of Service [QoS]), which assures some level of
guarantee for sufficient network resources for high-bandwidth
applications such as live video

Network Layer

Transport Layer
The transport layer ensures that the entire message is
transmitted in order from source to destination.
Where the network layer treats every packet individually,
the transport layer looks at the entire message.
The transport layer is also responsible for virtual
connection creation.
The transport layer accepts data from the session layer
and segments the data for transport across the network.
Generally, the transport layer is responsible for making
sure that the data is delivered error-free and in the
proper sequence.

Transport Layer
End-to-end error control and flow control generally occur at the
transport layer.
Flow control manages data transmission between devices so
that the transmitting device does not send more data than the
receiving device can process.
The transport layer keeps track of such things as validity of data
packets, sequencing, and the handling of duplicate packets
There are two protocol types used by the transport layer:
connection-oriented and connectionless
For connection oriented protocol, the transport layer on the
receiving end can send an acknowledgment back to the
sending computer to let the sender know that the packet arrived

Transport Layer

Session Layer
The session layer establishes, manages,
and terminates communication sessions.
Communication sessions consist of service
requests and service responses that occur
between applications located in different network
devices.
This involves placing markers in the stream of
data. If there is a communication failure, only the
data from the most recent marker, or checkpoint,
need to be resend.

Session Layer
The session layer looks at the entire session and
provides some form of dialog control.
The session layer is responsible for ensuring the
dialog mode(full, half, or simplex) and
synchronization(checkpoints).
Full-duplex allows communication in both directions, and unlike
half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously. - e.g. telephone
Half-duplex provides for communication in both directions, but
only one direction at a time (not simultaneously) e.g. walkie
talkie
Simplex communication flow in only one direction

Session Layer

Presentation Layer
The application layer protocol receives the
data from the user application and passes
it down the stack to the presentation layer
As its name suggests, this layer handles
issues that have to do with the packaging
or presentation of the data
These issues include data compression,
data encryption, protocol translation

Presentation Layer
Data compression - This is the reduction of the size of the
data to facilitate faster transmission over the network
Data encryption - This is the conversion of data into an
encoded form that cannot be read by unauthorized persons
Protocol translation - This is the conversion of data from one
protocol to another so that it can be transferred between
dissimilar platforms or operating systems
The presentation layer on the receiving computer is
responsible for uncompressing, decrypting, and otherwise
translating data into a format understandable by the
application

Presentation Layer

Application Layer
The first and most important thing to
understand about the application layer is that
it is not the user application that creates the
message
Rather, this layer provides for interaction
between that application program and the
network
Protocols that function at the application layer
perform functions such as file transfers,
printing access, and messaging services

Application Layer

X.500 - series of computer networking standards

covering electronic directory services
FTAM - File Transfer Access Method

X.400 - standards for Data Communication

Networks for Message Handling Systems
(MHS)

Transmission Control Protocol/

Internet Protocol
TCP/IP
Where the OSI model describes how networks work,
the TCP/IP model describes how the Internet works.
The TCP/IP stack is the foundation of Internet
communications, and was developed before the OSI
model came to place.
It is quickly becoming the most common
network/transport solution for networks of all sizes
and configurations.
The TCP/IP suite contains independent protocols
which serve very specialized functions.

Internet Protocols and Standards

Application
Transport
Internet
Network
Access

/etc/services
TCP

IANA: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority

UDP
ICMP

IP

ARP
Ethernet
And Others

IETF: Internet
Engineering
Task Force

RFC: Request
For Comments

IEEE: Institute of Electrical and

Electronic Engineers

ITU: International Telecommunications Union

Design principles
Communication based on the idea of packet switching.
The data being transferred is encapsulated in a sequence of fixed
size chunks, each of which is transmitted together with a header
that contains addressing and other "housekeeping" information.

Each individual network operates independently.

Networks are connected by gateways, which have a separate
physical interface to both networks.
Gateways provide a connection between the two networks by
encapsulating packets for one protocol inside another.

Design principles
Layering: standard conventions or protocols are needed so that the
information is handled appropriately.
Internet protocols are designed as a series of layers, where the
physical communications medium is at the bottom and the top layer
represents the applications that initiate and receive the messages
that are transferred.
Each layer builds on the services and capabilities provided by the
lower layers.

Design principles
End-to-end protocols: Each layer of the protocol stack
constitutes a communication channel between two endpoints
that exchange messages.
Between the sender of the data and its ultimate destination,
the only thing that the network needs to examine is the
destination address of the packets it must deliver.
No data in the packets is processed in any way between the
source and the destination.

Design principles
Least Mechanism: To send a packet, a source needs only
know a "neighbour" that is connected to the network.
Intermediate gateways and routers simply send each packet to
a neighbour as the "next-hop" closer to the destination.
Packets may arrive in any order, and delivery is on a best effort
basis. If a packet does not make it to the final destination, the
destination must contact the source with a request that it be
retransmitted.

OSI

TCP/IP

Application
Presentation

Application

Session
Transport

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

Transport

Network

Internet

Data-Link

Network
Access

Physical

Understanding the abstract architecture

is key to understanding the concrete
network
For this class the
concrete network is
TCP/IP over Ethernet

Physical

TCP: Handshake, Port, Sequence

IP: Source & Destination Address,
Subnets, Routing
Ethernet: CSMA/CD - Broadcast
Link Layer Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)
Address

Beyond a broadcast domain, communication is typically

through a network of intermediate switching nodes.
Lets look into the details ...
Host A

Host B

HTTP

Identical Message (end-to-end)

HTTP

TCP

Identical Segments (end-to-end)

TCP

IP

Identical
Datagram

Ethernet

Proper
Frame

Network
Interface

Wiring

Intermediate
Router (Layer 3)
or Switch (Layer 2)

Network
Interface

Network
Interface

Identical
Datagram
Proper
Frame
Wiring

IP
Ethernet
Network
Interface

TCP/IP over Ethernet

Application
Transport

TCP: Handshake, Port, Sequence

Internet

IP: Source & Destination Address,

Subnets, Routing

Network
Access

Ethernet: CSMA/CD - Broadcast

Physical

Link Layer Control (LLC)

Media Access Control (MAC)
Address

Encapsulation
A packet is a structured message.
The control information of a given protocol must be
treated strictly as data by the next "lower" protocol.
As a packet moves down the protocol stack, it gets
bigger as information relevant to the layer is added
to the beginning and the end.
Any given layer is allowed to work only with the data
relevant to that layer, and nobody else's.
As a packet moves up the stack it gets smaller, as
the information from the current level is removed.

Packets and Encapsulation

Packets: Header and payload
Header tells where the packet came from
and where its going
Payload is the data
TCP layer its called a segment
IP layer its called a packet
Link layer its called a frame
Cultural
Sensitivity

Ethernet, IP, and TCP

TCP Segment
Header
IP Datagram
Header
Frame
Header

Data

Complete TCP Segment

Treated as Data

Complete IP Datagram
Treated as Data

Remember, this is really just a stream of bits

0011110101010101110000101010101010001010110101001001010

CRC

Packet Size
Computer architecture calls eight bits a byte, Data communications
calls eight bits an octet
Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) for Ethernet allows 12000 bits
(1500 octets) of data. The actual size of the MTU depends on the
network.
TCP Segment sizes are negotiated by the sending and receiving
systems, within the limit of their local network MTU.
IP Datagrams can be broken into fragments to fit the
recommended minimum Internet MTU of 576 octets. Each
fragment maintains the same header information, followed by as
much data as possible within the limit of the network MTU.

Ethernet Frame Format

Preamble (64 bits)
Destination Address (48 bits)
Source Address (48 bits)
Packet type (16 bits)
Data (368-12,000 bits)
CRC (32 bits)

Key Fields
Preamble: Alternating 1's and 0's to
help receiving nodes synchronise
Address: Unique identifier assigned
by the hardware manufacturer
(MAC Address)
Packet Type: identifies this as an
Ethernet frame (allows mutiple
protocols and versions)
CRC: Error detection (Cyclic
Redundancy Check)

Datagram Format
Each row represents 4 octets (32 bits)
Version - Length - QOS - Total Length
Unique ID - Flags - Fragment Offset
Time to Live - Protocol - Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options - Padding
Data
(up to 4416 bits)

Key Fields
IP is version 4 or 6
QOS requests priority
Second Row controls
Fragmentation (e.g., "2 of 4")
Gateways decrement TTL
and discard the datagram if
zero
Protocol is analogous to
Ethernet Type, Header
Checksum to CRC
Options are included for
network testing (not required)

TCP Segment Format

Each row represents 4 octets (32 bits)
Source Port - Destination Port
Sequence Number
Acknowledgement Number
Offset - Code - Window
Checksum - Urgent
Options - Padding
Data
(up to 4224 bits)

Key Fields
Port number specifies service
Sequence is position in
sender's byte stream
Acknowledgement of position
in sender's byte stream
Some segments carry only
ACK, others carry data, and
others a request to establish or
close a connection (Code)
Window and Options negotiate
maximum segment size

Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switching

Switching is the process of taking an incoming frame from one
interface and delivering it out through another interface.
Routers use Layer 3 switching to route a packet
Switches use Layer 2 switching to forward frames.
The difference between Layer 2 and Layer 3 switching is the
type of information inside the frame that is used to determine
the correct output interface.
At Layer 2 frames are switched based on MAC address
At Layer 3 packets are switched based on IP address

Routers
connecting
remote sites

primary task is
forwarding
packets
(datagrams)

Key concept:
Encapsulation

encapsulation

Ethernet: MAC, LLC

Network
Data-Link

Network
Access

Ethernet: CSMA/CD - Broadcast

Link Layer Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)
Address

MAC address
The Data Link Layer uses a physical address for each
device called a Media Access Control address
MAC addresses are typically burned into the network
interface card (NIC).
LLC
The Data Link Layer uses a Logical Link Control protocol
to determine the type of Network Layer data is traveling
inside the frame.

Ethernet: CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense see if anyone is talking
Multiple Access anyone can talk
Collision Detection did anyone else talk?
CS: If nothing is arriving on the interface, send an outgoing frame
MA: Everyone on the segment uses the same wires to send and
receive

an ethernet segment is a broadcast domain

an ethernet segment is analogous to an IP subnet
CD: If an incoming frame clashes with an outgoing frame, wait a
random period of time before sending again

TCP/IP over Ethernet

Application
Transport

Transport

TCP: Handshake, Port, Sequence

Internet

IP: Source & Destination Address,

Subnets, Routing

Network
Network
Access
Physical

TCP: Initial Connection

Handshake
TCP connections are full duplex streams.
Sequence numbers are established during the initial connection
using a 3-Way Handshake.

Other initial connection setup messages establish parameters of

channel e.g., buffer sizes, error detection & recovery procedures.

TCP: Acknowledge or Retransmit

Sender keeps a copy of each transmitted packet and waits for
acknowledgement (ACK) to arrive.
Sender also starts a timer when each packet is transmitted.
If the timer expires before the ACK is received, the packet
is retransmitted (and timer restarted)
Packets identified by sequence number
Duplicate packet (already acknowledged) is discarded
Packets are protected by checksum - packets with errors are
dropped, leading to acknowledgement timeout and retransmission.
Full-Duplex connection allows protocol control signals (like ACKs) to
be sent as part of data travelling opposite direction

TCP: Flow Control

Several packets may be transmitted at once, with one ACK for errorfree arrival (sliding window)
Available buffer at receiver determines maximum window size.
Reducing window size slows data flow

Setting window size to zero halts data

exchange!
Congestion avoidance:
Cut window size in half when timeout occurs
Lengthen time for ACK for retransmitted segments

Allows gateways to clear datagrams already

queued

UDP - User Datagram Protocol

Connectionless service for application level procedures

unreliable
delivery & duplication control not guaranteed
Reduced overhead, least common denominator service
Used when one IP packet is sufficient for the whole message

inward data collection

outward data dissemination
request-response
real time application

Transport Protocol Addresses:

TCP & UDP Port Numbers
/etc/services
# This file contains port numbers for well-known services defined by IANA
# Format:
# <service name> <port number>/<protocol> [aliases...]
[#<comment>]
discard
9/tcp
sink null
discard
9/udp
sink null
qotd
17/tcp
quote
#Quote of the day
qotd
17/udp
quote
#Quote of the day
ftp-data
20/tcp
#FTP, data
ftp
21/tcp
#FTP. control
telnet
23/tcp
smtp
25/tcp
mail
#Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
time
37/tcp
timserver
time
37/udp
timserver
domain
53/tcp
#Domain Name Server
domain
53/udp
#Domain Name Server
bootps
67/udp
dhcps
#Bootstrap Protocol Server
bootpc
68/udp
dhcpc
#Bootstrap Protocol Client
tftp
69/udp
#Trivial File Transfer
finger
79/tcp
http
80/tcp
www www-http
#World Wide Web

 Ports
16 bits
Ports under 1024 restricted to root

ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol

Used for gateway management:
congestion control (source quench)
route-change notification (redirect)
subnet addressing (address mask
request/reply)
Also for general network management:
reachability testing (echo request/reply)
performance measuring (timestamp)

ARP - Address Resolution Protocol

Concerned with mapping layer 2 to layer 3 addresss, e.g.,
MAC address to IP address.
The source host sends an ARP request by broadcast, asking
who has IP address A.B.C.D?
If the destination host (which owns A.B.C.D) sees the ARP
query, it responds and sends its MAC address.
If the destination host is not on the same local network, the
router/gateway will respond and send its own MAC address.
The source host registers the MAC address obtained and a
data-link (layer 2) connection is established between the two
hosts.

Internet Protocols and Standards

Application
Transport
Internet
Network
Access

/etc/services
TCP

IANA: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority

UDP
ICMP

IP

ARP
Ethernet
And Others

IETF: Internet
Engineering
Task Force

RFC: Request
For Comments

IEEE: Institute of Electrical and

Electronic Engineers

ITU: International Telecommunications Union

Question and Answer Session

Q&A