SDLC

• SDLC stands for

– Systems
– Development
– Life
– Cycle
 What Is the SDLC?
• The systems development life cycle (SDLC)
therefore, refers to the development stage of the
system’s life cycle
The software/system development life cycle (SDLC)
is the overall process of developing information
systems through a multi-step process from
investigation of initial requirements through analysis,
design, implementation and maintenance.
• There are many different models and methodologies,
but each generally consists of a series of similar
defined steps or stages.
 Typical Reasons to Initiate
a Systems Development
Project
Problems with existing systems

Desire to exploit new opportunities

Increasing competition Perception of potential

benefit by individual Systems development
Desire to make more capable of initiating process initiated
effective use of information change

Organizational growth

Change in market or
external environment
Systems Development Life
Cycle
• Systems investigation
– Problems and opportunities are identified It’s a
• Systems analysis “cycle”
– Existing systems and work processes are studied
• Systems design
– Defines how the information system will do what it must
do to solve the problem
• Systems implementation
– System components are assembled and the new or
modified system is placed into operation
• Systems maintenance and review
– Ensures the system operates and is modified to keep up
with business changes
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)
• Planning
• Feasibility Study (optional)
Analysis

• Requirements Determination
• Conceptual Design
• Physical Design
• Construction and/or Purchase
(prototype)
Implementation

• Training
Design and

• Conversion - old to new

• Implementation
• Evolution - maintenance &
enhancements

8
 Sequential or Traditional SDLC
“Begin” 1. Planning for an information system
2. Feasibility Study (optional)
3. Requirements Determination (gathering)
4. Conceptual design
5. Physical design and/or purchase and/or prototyping
6. Conversion from current system to new/changed system
7. Training
8. Implementation
“End” 9. Evolution for enhancements and maintenance

Waterfall or Staircase
SDLC
“Begin”
Planning
Feasibility Study
Requirements Determination
Conceptual Design
Physical Design
Conversion
Training
Implementation
“End” Evolution

9
 Systems investigation
(understand problem)

Systems Analysis
(understand solution)

Systems design
(select and plan best solution)

Systems implementation
(place solution into effect)

Systems maintenance
and review
(evaluate results of solution)
■Systems Analysis and
Design is the process people
use to create (automated)
information systems

Systems
Analysis Information
& Design System

14
 Participants
• Stakeholders
– Individuals/organizations who are beneficiaries
of the systems development effort
• Systems analyst
– Professional who specializes in analyzing and
designing business systems
• Users
– Individuals who interact with the system
regularly
• Programmer
– Individual responsible for modifying or
developing programs to satisfy user
requirements
 Managers

System
stakeholders Programme
rs

Systems analyst

Users Technical
specialists
Vendors and suppliers
 Systems Analyst

A programmer or consultant who designs and manages the

development of business applications. Typically, systems
analysts are more involved in design issues than in day-to-day
coding. However, systems analyst is a somewhat arbitrary title,
so different companies define the role differently.
Cost to
make a
particular
change

Investigation Analysis Design Implementation Mainte

and review
Time
• SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
■Systems Analysis and
Design is the process people
use to create (automated)
information systems

Systems
Analysis Information
& Design System

27
 Systems Analyst
A title given to a person who studies the
problems and needs of an organization
looking for improvement opportunities.

Other names:
• Software Engineer
• Systems Engineer
• Software Developer
• Programmer/Analyst
• Nerd or Hacker! (joking!)
28
 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN: A Condensed
(Informal) Perspective

An idea Analysis Design and Completed

Implementation Information
System
Time
29
 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN: A Complete (Formal)
Perspective
• Systems Planning

• Systems Analysis Planning

• Systems Design Evolution Analysis

• Systems
Implementation Design
Implementation

• Systems Evolution

30
 System

Natural Fabricated

Information Others
Systems

Automated Others
Information
Systems
31
siness “problems” come in all sizes and shape
shap
• Name & Address Book
• CD Collection
• Course Registration
• Reservations
• Student Grades
• Payroll
• ATM machine & Banking in General
• Check-Out Counters at Retail Stores
• Order Fulfillment - Mail or Web Ordering
Examples: •
•
Manufacturing
Securities Portfolio Management
• Space Shuttle Flight
• Election Results
• Video Games (Arcade and Home)

32
 System

★ A SYSTEM is a set of:

– interrelated components

– working together

– for a common purpose

33
 A Generic System
Model
(with Six Components)
SYSTEM
processing

boundary controls
inputs
feedback outputs

Examples:
• Automobile
• Student Registration System
• Others...
34
 System Model Hierarchy
Template Example

“bigger”Suprasystem Water Vehicles

System Cruise Ship

Subsystem
“smaller” Staterooms
35
An INFORMATION SYSTEM is:

• a type of fabricated system

• used by one or more persons

• to help them accomplish some task or

assignment they have

An Information System:
• includes the 3 aspects of a
data people
system
• supports policies &
procedures
procedures
• has three additional
components - data, people, 36
An AUTOMATED INFORMATION SYSTEM IS:

■ a type of fabricated system

■ used by one or more persons

■ to help them accomplish some task or

assignment they have

■ utilizes hardware and software in

addition to data, people, procedures

data people
■ …plus all the aspects of a system

software procedures

hardware
37
 An AUTOMATED INFORMATION SYSTEM
has three basic characteristics to
consider:
DATA FUNCTIONS

BEHAVIOR

• DATA - input, output, or already stored electronically

• FUNCTIONS - transformations or actions taken
• BEHAVIOR - the observable effects from interaction

the six system components: input, output, processing, control, feedback and bo
38
• Systems Analysis and Design is the
process people use to create
(automated) information systems

data people

SA&D software procedures

hardware

39
★ The people who do SYSTEMS ANALYSIS and DESIGN

produce information systems that are:

✔ used internally within the organization

✔ sold commercially via mail/web order or retail store

✔imbedded in products

40
 What makes Systems Analysis and
Design a difficult activity?
✔ Initially, problem domains (areas) tend to have poorly defined BOUNDARIES

✔ Problem domain SOLUTIONS are artificial

✔ Problem domains are DYNAMIC

✔ Problem domain solutions usually require INTERDISCIPLINARY knowledge and

skills

✔ Systems Analyst’s KNOWLEDGEBASE is continually expanding

✔ Systems Analysis and Design is a highly COGNITIVE activity

✔ Working with PEOPLE

41
ystems Analyst’s interactions with people during Systems Analysis & Des

Steering
Users* Committee*

Managers* SYSTEMS
ANALYST Vendors

Database Programmers
Systems Analyst
Administrators & Tech. Staff
may be acting as
a Project Manager
for some of these
interactions.
* = Stakeholders
42
What does a Systems Analyst do?

Studies the problems and needs of an

organization looking for improvement

opportunities for:

– increasing revenue/profit

– decreasing costs

– improving quality of service

43
What is a Systems Analyst responsible for

Effective and efficient:

– CAPTURE of input data

– PROCESSING & STORAGE of data

– DELIVERY of timely and accurate

information
44
 Skills and Competencies
Environments/Tools
of a Systems Analyst
Methodologies

Methods & Techniques

Concepts & Principles

Problem
Solving &
People
Skills

PLUS:
• Functional Business
Knowledge
• Verbal & written
communication skills
• Systems Analysis and Design
work experience 45
General Model of Information Systems Development (“Partnership”)

Stakeholder

Requirements Information
(1) Continued System (6)
Involvement
(5)

Requirements Specification Design

Analysis (3) and
Implementation

Problem
Problem
Definition
Solution
Skills (2)
Skills (4)

Information
Technology
Staff
46
 Systems Analysis and Design Activities and Deliverables

DESIGN
ANALYSIS Activities:
Activities: • Physical Design
• Prototyping (optional)
• Systems Planning • Software Construction/Purchase
• Feasibility Study (optional) • User Documentation - “Deliverable”
• Requirements Determination • Testing
• Conceptual Design • Training
• User Acceptance • User Acceptance
• Prototyping (optional) • Conversion
Deliverables: • Implementing the system
• Requirements Specification Deliverable:
• Prototype (optional) • Information System

Two (2) additional on-going activities:

• Project Management • Project Documentation - “Scaffolding”
47
stems Analysis and Design Project Observatio
• Labor intensive

• Smallest team = you

• Next smallest team = you and one other (user)

• Average team = several systems analysts and users

• Articulation of the business problem is difficult

• Users and systems analysts come in all sizes and shapes

48
Where Do Systems Analysis and
Design Projects Come From?

• Problems - “something needs to be

fixed”

• Opportunities - “good deals”

• Directives - “do it…or else…”

... and are bounded by Constraints
49
Iterative SDLC Spiral SDLC
SDLC Activities
Planning

Feasibility Study
Requirements Determination

Conceptual Design

Physical Design
Conversion

Training

Implementation

Evolution

Risk Analysis Verification/Test

50
Boehm, 1988 51
Principles to Guide Systems Analysis & Desig

• The system is for the user

• A Work Breakdown Structure should be used (ie., SDLC)

• Systems analysis and design is iterative and overlapping

• Information systems are capital investments for the business

• Project manager may have the authority to cancel a project

• Project documentation is important all along the way

• Senior management approval/support is very important

52
QUITTING TIME

53
 Approaches to Systems
Development
• Process-Oriented Approach
– Focus is on flow, use and transformation of
data in an information system
– Involves creating graphical representations
such as data flow diagrams and charts
– Data are tracked from sources, through
intermediate steps and to final destinations
– Natural structure of data is not specified
– Disadvantage: data files are tied to specific
applications
 Approaches to Systems
Development
• Data-Oriented Approach
– Depicts ideal organization of data,
independent of where and how data are
used
– Data model describes kinds of data and
business relationships among the data
– Business rules depict how organization
captures and processes the data
 Approaches to Systems Development

Which is better, the Process Approach or the Data

Approach?

Process Approach:
“Let’s look at all of our
processes. Processes take
precedence over data. Get
the processes correct first.
Then we’ll address what
data is important.”

Data Approach:
“Forget the processes, let’s
look at the data. Data
comes first. Get the data
correct, then see how the
processes actually use the
data.”
Databases and Application
Independence
• Database
– Shared collection of logically related data
– Organized to facilitate capture, storage and
retrieval by multiple users
– Centrally managed
– Designed around subjects such as Customers or
Suppliers
• Application Independence
– Separation of data from the applications, e.g.
• Payroll data is part of the enterprise-wide data model
and can be used by many systems, not just the
Payroll System
 The Traditional System
Development Life Cycle
There are a number of important steps in the
creation of a system, regardless of which
approach you use. You may choose to ignore
some of these steps and combine others, but all
need to be considered. The traditional system
development life cycle (SDLC) makes all these
steps explicit. At the highest level, there are
three steps:
• Analysis
• Design and construction
• Implementation (and continuing Operations)
 The Traditional System
Development Life Cycle
I. Analysis Go?
No go?
1. Initiation (e.g., an RFP)
2. Feasibility study
• Technical – can we build it?
• Economic – should we build it?
• Operational – if we build it, will it be used?
• Schedule – will it be ready in time?
1. Requirements definition
2. Specifications
3. Project plan
 The Traditional System
Development Life Cycle
II. Design
6. Logical design (i.e., the external
view)
7. Physical design (i.e., the internal
view)
8. Coding (or code acquisition)
9. Testing
 The Traditional System
Development Life Cycle
III. Implementation
10. Documentation – ouch! This should have been
done all along!
11. Conversion
• Direct
• Parallel
• Pilot
• Phased
12. Training – both initial and continuing
• Users
• I/S staff
• Management
13. Installation
 The Traditional System
Development Life Cycle
IV. Operations
14. Production
15. Post-implementation audit
16. Maintenance
 The Traditional System
Development Life Cycle
Why conduct a post-implementation audit?
To answer these four questions:
1. Did we deliver the system that we promised to deliver; it is
working as promised? If not, we should fix it.
2. If it is working as promised, is the user harvesting the
benefits; i.e., achieving the economic results that he
promised to achieve? If not, he should be made to do so.
3. Are there new features that should be added to the system?
4. What have we learned from this project that can help us
with how we do projects in the future?
 The Traditional System
Development Life Cycle
What is maintenance?
“It is post-implementation software
development, designed to ensure the continued
effectiveness of the software in question.”
There are three types of maintenance:
1. Corrective
2. Adaptive
3. Perfective
How should maintenance be managed?
1. “Cradle-to-grave”; those who built it, maintain it.
2. Separate maintenance department.
3. Outsource the maintenance to a third party.
 The Traditional SDLC
A waterfall approach

(1) Systems An eight-stage

Investigation
(2) Systems systems
Analysis development life
(3) Systems
Design cycle (SDLC)
(4)
Programming
(5) Testing

(6)
Implementation
(7) Operation

(8)
Maintenance
 Key aspects with SDLC
• Active end-user involvement
– Throughout development process
• Top Management Support
– Steering committee represents top
management and all functional areas
affected by project
• How will you measure system success?
– Should be established up-front
 Why Develop an IS?
• An opportunity (proactive)
– Potential increase in revenue
– Reduction of costs
– Gain in competitive advantage
• A problem (reactive)
– Undesired situation
• A directive
– An order to take action
The Systems Development
Life Cycle (Cont.)

71
The Systems Development
Life Cycle (Cont.)

72
 Analysis
• Investigation

• Developers interview managers and

perspective users to determine business
needs

• Three feasibility studies performed

73
 Analysis (Cont.)
• Technical Feasibility Study

– Ensures hardware and software exist to build

the system

• Economic Feasibility Study

– Determines resources needed for

implementation

– Determines if benefits outweigh the costs

74
The Systems Development
Life Cycle (Cont.)

75
 Analysis (Cont.)
• Operational Feasibility Study

– Determines if system will be used as

intended at its full capacity

• Requirements Definition

– Specific features and interface

requirements of the system defined

76
The Systems Development
Life Cycle

77
 Design
• Translation of user requirements into
detailed functions of the system
– Input files
– Procedures
– Output files
– User Dialog
– Interfaces

78
Design (Cont.)

79
 Design (Cont.)
• Software development tools

– Flowcharts

• Graphical symbols illustrating system

• Logical and physical elements

• Over 30 symbols for events, hardware,

processes and more

80
Design (Cont.)

81
 Design (Cont.)
• Software development tools
– Data flow diagram
• Describe flow of data in system with only
four symbols:
– External entities
– Processes
– Data stores
– Data direction

82
The Systems Development
Life Cycle (Cont.)

83
The Systems Development
Life Cycle (Cont.)

84
 Design (Cont.)
• Software development tools
– Unified Modeling Language
• Graphical standard for visualizing,
specifying, and documenting software
• Independent of programming language
• Describe types of software
• Use case, class, interaction, state,
activity, and physical components

85
The Systems Development
Life Cycle (Cont.)

86
 Design (Cont.)
• Construction

– Programming

• Systems Testing

– Checked against system requirements

– Attempts to make system fail

87
 Implementation

• Training

• Conversion

– Parallel Conversion

– Phased Conversion

– Cut Over Conversion

– Pilot Conversion

88
Implementation (Cont.)

89
Support

90
 Phases in SDLC
• System Investigation
– Feasibility study determines the probability of
success of proposed system’s development
project. Includes …
• Technical feasibility (will we be able to build the
system?)
• Economic feasibility (how much will it cost to build
the system and how much will it benefit us?)
• Behavioral feasibility (if we build the system, will it
be accepted and used?)
Phases in SDLC (continued)

• Systems Analysis
– Examines the business problem(s) that the
organization plans to solve with information
systems
– Determines what the new system must do by
examining:
• Strengths and weaknesses of the existing system
• Functions that the new systems must have to solve
the business problem(s)
• User information requirements for the new system
– Develops initial working relationship with
current end users
Phases in SDLC (continued)

• Systems Design
– Describes how the system will fulfill the user
requirements
– Develop both logical design and physical
design
– Output => technical design or system
specification…
• system outputs, inputs, and user interfaces
• hardware, software, databases,
telecommunications, personnel, and procedures
• how these components are integrated
Phases in SDLC (continued)

• Systems Design (cont’d)

– Factors to consider during make-or-buy
decision
• On-time/On-budget
• Full functionality
• User acceptance
• Favorable costs-to-benefits ratio
• Low maintenance
• Scalability
• Integration with other systems
• Minimal negative cross-impacts
• Reusability
• Customization (is source code available?)
Phases in SDLC (continued)

• Programming
– the translation of the design specifications
into computer code
– structured programming techniques improve
the logical flow of the program by
decomposing the computer code into
modules
– issue of open-source vs proprietary
development tools
Phases in SDLC (continued)

• Testing (quality assurance)

– Checks to see if the computer code will
produce the expected and desired
results under certain conditions
– Use combinations of black-box and
white-box testing
Phases in SDLC (continued)
• Implementation
– The process of converting from the old
system to the new system
– Four major conversion strategies
• Parallel conversion: the old and new systems
operate simultaneously for a period of time
• Direct conversion: the old system is cut off and the
new systems is turned on at a certain point in time
• Pilot conversion: introduces the new system in one
part of the organization
• Phased conversion: introduces components of the
new system in stages
 SDLC Phases
• Operation
– the new system will operate for a period of
time, until it no longer meets its objectives
• Maintenance (simultaneous with
Operation)
– debugging the programs
– updating the system to accommodate
changes in business conditions
– adding new functionality to the system