ELECTRICAL POWER

T&D SYSTEM
MODULE VI ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM FOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS

OVERVIEW

IEEE Std 141-1993,

IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants

OVERVIEW

The term industrial plants, as used in

this chapter, refers to industrial
plants, buildings, and complexes
where manufacturing, industrial
production, research, and
development are performed.
It does not include commercial
buildings, such as institutional,
governmental, public, healthrelated office buildings, nor
apartment and residential

VOLTAGE CONSIDERATIONS
An understanding of system voltage nomenclature
and the preferred voltage ratings of distribution
apparatus and utilization equipment is essential to
ensure proper voltage identification throughout a
power distribution system
Term and definition refer to ANSI C84.1-1989 to
identify the voltages and voltage classes used in
electric power distribution
Nominal system voltage is near the voltage level at
which the system normally operates. To allow for
operating contingencies, systems generally operate
at voltage levels about 5-10% below the maximum
system voltage for which system components are
designed.

APPLICATION OF VOLTAGE CLASS

Low-voltage class voltages are used to supply utilization
equipment.
Medium-voltage class voltages are used for subtransmission and primary distribution.
Supply distribution transformers which step the medium voltage
down to low voltage to supply utilization equipment.
Supply distribution substations that transform the voltage from
a higher to a lower voltage in the medium-voltage class.
Medium voltages of 13 800 V and below are also used to supply
utilization equipment such as large motors
High-voltage class voltages are used to transmit large
amounts of electric power between transmission
substations.
Transmission substations located adjacent to generating
stations step the generator voltage up to the transmission
voltage.
Other transmission substations transform the high voltage down

ANSI C84.1-1989 Standard Nominal System Voltages & Voltage

Ranges

SYSTEM VOLTAGE TOLERANCE LIMIT

ANSI C84.1-1989 specifies the preferred nominal voltages and
operating voltage ranges for utilization and distribution
equipment operating from 120-34,500 V in the United States.
It specifies voltages for two critical points on the distribution
system: the point of delivery by the supplying utility and the
point of connection to utilization equipment.
Standard voltage profile for low-voltage regulated power
distribution system, 120 V base:

SYSTEM VOLTAGE
NOMENCLATURE

EFFECT OF VOLTAGE VARIATION ON UTILIZATION

EQUIPMENT

EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE

INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

POWER QUALITY
Voltage Drop
Voltage unbalance
Voltage sag & flicker
Harmonics

VOLTAGE DROP CONSIDERATIONS ON LOW

VOLTAGE
Areas that can be supplied for specific voltage drops and voltages
at various secondary distribution system power source locations:

If overload is ruled out or if the utilization voltage is excessively

high, a voltage survey should be made, preferably by using
graphic voltmeters, to determine the voltage spread at the
utilization equipment under all load conditions and the voltage
spread at the utility supply.
If excessively low voltage is caused by excessive voltage drop in the
plant wiring (over 5%), then plant wiring changes are required to
reduce the voltage drop.
If the load power factor is low, capacitors may be installed to
improve the power factor and reduce the voltage drop.

VOLTAGE UNBALANCE
Most utilities use four-wire grounded-wye primary
distribution systems so that single-phase distribution
transformers can be connected phase-to-neutral to
supply single-phase loads, such as residences and
street lights. Variations in single-phase loading cause
the currents in the three-phase conductors to be
different,
producing
different voltage drops and
When
unbalanced
phase voltages
causing
phase voltages
are
appliedthe
to three-phase
motors, to become unbalanced.
the phase-voltage unbalance
causes additional negativesequence currents to circulate in
the motor, increasing the heat
losses primarily in the rotor. The
most severe condition occurs
when one phase is opened and
the motor runs on single-phase
power

VOLTAGE SAG & FLICKER

Motor starting and short circuits on nearby lines can cause
lamp flicker and even large momentary voltage sags
that disrupt sensitive utilization equipment. Arc
furnaces and welders can cause voltage flicker that
occurs several times a second.
Motors have a high initial inrush current when turned on
and impose a heavy load at a low power factor for a very
short time. Voltage sag will occur in the wiring between
the secondary unit substation and the motor when
starting a motor with a full-load current which is on the
order of 5% of the rated current of the circuit. This will
result in a full-load voltage drop on the order of 4 or 5%.
Large motors may be supplied at medium voltage such as
2400, 4160, 6900, or 13200 V from a separate
transformer to eliminate the voltage dip on the lowvoltage system.

VOLTAGE SAG & FLICKER

Where loads are turned on and off rapidly as in the case

of resistance welders, or fluctuate rapidly as in the
case of arc furnaces, the rapid fluctuations in the light
output of incandescent lamps, and to a lesser extent,
gaseous discharge lamps, is called flicker.
Figure below shows acceptable voltage flicker limits for
incandescent lights used by a large number of utilities.
Two curves show how the acceptable voltage flicker
magnitude depends on the frequency of occurrence.

VOLTAGE SAG & FLICKER

When objectionable flicker occurs, either the load causing the

flicker should be reduced or eliminated, or the capacity of the
supply system increased to reduce the voltage drop caused by
the fluctuating load.
In large plants, flicker-producing equipment should be
segregated on separate transformers and feeders so as not to
disturb flicker-sensitive equipment.

VOLTAGE SAG & FLICKER

Solid-state controllers such as adjustable speed
drives, microprocessor controllers, sensors, and
other equipment are often sensitive to
momentary voltage sags associated with remote
electrical short circuits.
The duration of voltage sags depends upon the time
required to detect and interrupt the short circuit
current. Typical minimum interruption time for
medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers are 3-5
cycles at 60 Hz while older breakers may be rated
for 8 cycles.
Some sags last even longer because of required
time delay for overcurrent coordination.
Probability density of voltage sag duration had a
duration less than 0.2 s

HARMONICS
A harmonic is defined as a sinusoidal component of a
periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. (IEEE Std
100-1992 [B14])
Voltage and current on the ideal ac power system have pure
single frequency sine wave shapes. Real power systems
have some distortion because an increasing number of
loads require current that is not a pure sine wave.
Single- and three-phase rectifiers, adjustable speed drives,
arc furnaces, computers, and fluorescent lights are good
examples.
Fourier analysis shows the waveform distortion contains
higher frequency components that are integer multiples
of the fundamental frequency. These higher frequency
components distort the voltage by interacting with the
system impedance.

HARMONICS

EFFECT OF HARMONICS
Power System: additional losses due to heating, cause
control and monitoring equipment to register
improperly and voltage distortions.
Loads:
Induction & synchronous machines: increased heating due to
iron and copper losses in the machines at the higher
frequencies. In a motor can give rise to higher audible noise
emission
Transformer: increased levels of audible noise, harmonic
current causes additional copper losses and stray flux losses,
and voltage harmonics cause an increase in iron losses
Power cable: parasitic heating
Capacitor: harmonic voltages in the capacitor are additive to
the fundamental voltage peak result on dielectric stresses

HARMONICS LIMITS

MITIGATION OF HARMONICS
Shunt filters: The most common method used to
control the fow of harmonic currents. They are
designed as a series combination of reactors
(inductance) and capacitors (capacitance). To act
as trap because it absorbs the harmonic
current to which it is tuned.
Phase-shifting transformers: delta-delta
transformer connections with delta-wye
connections will eliminate some of the fifth and
seventh harmonic currents when there are
several drives operating in a facility
Harmonic current injection: injecting equivalent
currents that are phase-shifted 180o. This
technique, which is called active filtering

APPLICATION & COORDINATION OF

PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Power system protective devices provide the intelligence
and initiate the action that enables circuit switching
equipment to respond to abnormal or dangerous system
conditions.
Normally, relays control power circuit breakers rated above
600V and current-responsive self-contained elements
operate multiple-pole low-voltage circuit breakers to
isolate circuits experiencing overcurrents on any phase.
In systems employing circuit breakers, other than those
with direct acting devices that use fault current to power
relaying and trip functions, there is always a risk that
during a fault the system voltage can drop suddenly to a
value too low for the protective devices to function. For
this reason station battery sets, or capacitor trip devices,
are usually employed to provide tripping energy.

APPLICATION & COORDINATION OF

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

APPLICATION & COORDINATION OF

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

COORDINATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES

Determining the settings and ratings for the overcurrent devices
in a power system is an important task and, when correctly
done, assures the intended performance of the system.
Continuity of plant electric service requires that interrupting
equipment operate in a selective manner. This may require
longer opening times (for a given current) of the interrupters
successively closer to the power source during faults. The
necessity for maximum safety to personnel and electric
equipment, on the other hand, calls for the fastest possible
isolation of faulted circuits.
The coordination curve plot provides a graphical means of
displaying the competing objectives of selectivity and
protection.
A total time margin of 0.40 s at maximum fault current is
sufficient to afford satisfactory selectivity between inversetime relays (electromechanical relays) . Further reduction of
this margin (to approximately 0.20-0.25 s) is possible with
solid-state relays which reset rapidly.

COORDINATION OF PROTECTIVE
DEVICES

SWITCHGEAR
Switchgear is a general term that describes switching and
interrupting devices, either alone or in combination with other
associated control, metering, protective, and regulating
equipment, which are assembled in one or more sections.
A power switchgear assembly consists of a complete assembly of
one or more of the above noted devices and main bus
conductors, interconnecting wiring, accessories, supporting
structures, and enclosure. Power switchgear is applied
throughout the electric power system of an industrial plant,
but is principally used for incoming line service and to control
and protect load centers, motors, transformers, motor control
centers, panel boards, and other secondary distribution
equipment.
An open switchgear assembly is one that does not have an
enclosure as part of the supporting structure.
An enclosed switchgear assembly consists of a metal-enclosed
supporting structure with the switchgear enclosed on the top
and all sides with sheet metal

METAL-CLAD SWITCHGEAR
The main circuit switching and interrupting device is of the removable type arranged
with a mechanism for moving it physically between connected and disconnected
positions, and equipped with self-aligning and self-coupling primary and
secondary disconnecting devices.
Major parts of the primary circuit, such as the circuit switching or interrupting
devices, buses, potential transformers, and control power transformers, are
enclosed by grounded metal barriers. Specifically included is an inner barrier in
front of, or as a part of, the circuit interrupting device to ensure that no
energized primary circuit components are exposed when the unit door is opened.
All live parts are enclosed within grounded metal compartments. Automatic shutters
prevent exposure of primary circuit elements when the removable element is in
the test, disconnected, or fully withdrawn position.
Primary bus conductors and connections are covered with insulating material
throughout. For special configurations, insulated barriers between phases and
between phase and ground may be specified.
Mechanical interlocks are provided to ensure a proper and safe operating sequence.
Instruments, meters, relays, secondary control devices, and their wiring are isolated
by grounded metal barriers from all primary circuit elements, with the exception
of short lengths of wire associated with instrument transformer terminals.
The door, through which the circuit-interrupting device is inserted into the housing,
may serve as an instrument or relay panel and may also provide access to a
secondary or control compartment within the housing.

METAL-CLAD SWITCHGEAR

LV POWER CIRCUIT BREAKER

SWITCHGEAR
Power circuit breakers of 1000 V
and below (fused or unfused)
Non-insulated bus and
connections (insulated and
isolated bus is available)
Instrument and control power
transformers
Instruments, meters, and relays
Control wiring and accessory
devices
Cable and busway termination
facilities
Shutters to automatically cover
line-side contacts when the
circuit breaker is withdrawn

METAL-ENCLOSED INTERRUPTER
SWITCHGEAR
Interrupter switches
or circuit switchers
Power fuses (if
required)
Non-insulated bus
and connections
Instrument and
control power
transformers
Control wiring and
accessory devices

RATED VOLTAGES & INSULATION LEVELS FOR AC

SWITCHGEAR ASSY.

END