Unit 6

Operating
Systems
Dr Damitha Kar u naratna
Univer s ity of Colombo school of computing

Topics to discuss
What is an operating system(OS)?
Main objectives of an OS
Main functions of an OS
Evolution of OS.
Process management.
Context switching.
Process state diagrams

Operating Systems

Components of a Computer System

hardwareelectronic, mechanical,
optical devices.
softwareprograms.
Software saved on the storage media.
Software burned into hardware
Firmware

Liveware Computer Users

Operating Systems

What is an operating system(OS)?

An operating system (OS) is a resource
manager.
What is the necessity for a resource
manager?
Many processes are active at any given
time and compete for resources.

An operating system provides orderly

and controlled allocation of the
resources among processes (jobs) that
are competing for them.
Operating Systems

Different types of
Software
Application Software
Systems Software
Operating system
System utilities
The quality of system software also
directly affects the application software

Operating Systems

Types of Software
Utility software:
system software
designed to help analyze,
configure, optimize or
maintain a computer
(Anti-virus, Backup
software, Editors, Data
compression, Disk
cleaners .).
They are not essential to
the running of the
computer

Transient
Component

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What is an operating system(OS)?

Operating Systems

What is an operating system(OS)?

Kernel : Part of
the O/S that
resides in the
main memory all
the time.

Operating Systems

Execution of source
programs

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Address mapping for re-locatable

programs

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Different types of Oss

(Based on the processor)
Windows/Linux For personal computers
Unix,z/OS, OS/390, VM For mainframes
MacOs For Macs
X Server, Windows Server Server
Operating Systems
Symbian, Android For mobile phones.

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Different types of OSs

(Based on the users)
Single User Allows only a single user to
use the OS at any given time. The use
may run several processes at the same
time.
Example - DOS

Multi User - Allows multiple users to

access a computer system at the same
time
Example UNIX, Time-sharing systems
and Internet servers.
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Different types of OSs(Based on

the number of tasks)
Single Task Allows only one running
program at any given time.
Multi Task - A multi-tasking operating
system allows more than one program to
be running at the same time.

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Different types of OSs

Real Time OS is designed to run
applications with very precise timing and
with a high degree of reliability.
The main objective of real-time operating
systems is their quick and predictable
response to events.
These types of OS are needed in situations
where downtime is costly or a program delay
could cause a safety hazard.

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Main objectives of an
OS
Convenience: Make the computer more
convenient to use
Provide easy to use interface for a normal users.
Hide the complexity of the hardware devices from
the application developer.

Efficiency: Monitor and manage resources of

the computer system efficiently
CPU
Main memory
Secondary Storages
Various devices connected to the computer

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Services provided by an
OS
Process Management
Storage (external) management
Memory management
I/O device management
Management of the File System
Networking
User Interface
Protection
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Services provided by an
OS.
Error detection and response
Hardware errors: memory error or device
failure
Software errors: arithmetic errors, access
forbidden memory locations

Accounting
collect statistics (billing)
monitor performance

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Types of User Interfaces

Command Line Interface(CLI)

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Types of User Interfaces

Graphical User Interface(GUI)

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OS and Processors
Can any OS run on any
processor?
Operating systems are software
Operating systems are designed
and developed for a specific CPU
family.
Macintosh OS: Motorola 680xx,
PowerPC Gx, Intel
DOS: Intel CPUs
Windows 9x and XP: Intel
80386, 80486, and Pentium CPUs
Linux: Intel CPUs
MS NT & 2000: Intel CPUs

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Compatibility of
Software
Question
Will software developed for one
operating system work on another?
For example will MS Word for
Macintosh run on a PC with
Windows XP?

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Compatibility of
Software
Question
Will software developed for one operating
system work on another?
Answer
No (unless there is special emulation
software or hardware). The software is
typically developed separately for each
operating system.

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Evolution of Operating systems

Serial Processing (1940 mid
1950s)
Single user system.
Programmer/User acts as the
operator and interacted with the
hardware.
No operating system.
Machines run from a console
with display lights, toggle
switches.
Paper Tapes or Punched cards for
the program and I/O.
Setup included loading the
compiler, source program, saving
compiled program, and loading
and linking

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Disadvantages :
Scheduling: Hardcopy sigh-up sheet for
reserving time
User could reserve for 45 mins and
finish in 30 mins => wastage of time
User may not be able to finish in
scheduled time

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Simple batch system

Simple Batch Processing
Systems
Use of high-level languages
Jobs are batched together by the
language.
Input/output is through punch
cards and magnetic tapes.
Software called the Monitor was
introduced to sequence the jobs.
Hardware support for the monitor
model
Memory protection: some memory areas
are accessible only to the monitor
Privileged mode instructions: only
accessible to the monitor
Interrupts (early machines did not have
this)

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Simple batch processing system

The user submits a job (written on cards or tape) to a
computer operator.
The computer operator place a batch of several jobs on
an input device.
A special program called the monitor, manages the
execution of each program in the batch.
Monitor is always in main memory.
Monitor reads and loaded programs sequentially and then (the utility
programs when needed) passed the control to the loaded program.
When a job terminates the control returns back to the monitor program.
Alternate execution between user program and the monitor program.

instructions for the monitor were given by using a special

purpose language called Job Control Language (JCL)

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Simple batch system

..
A user program executes in user mode, in
which certain areas of memory were protected
from the users use, and user program is not
allowed to execute certain instructions.
The monitor executes in a system mode, or a
kernel mode and it can execute privileged
instructions and can access protected memory
segments.
Machine time alternates between monitor and
the user programs.

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Simple batch system

..
Disadvantages

A portion of the memory has to be

allocated for the monitor
A small portion of the machine time
is consumed by the monitor.
Advantage of batch systems.

Reduce setup time by batching

similar jobs.
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Card Deck of a job

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Simple batch system : Problems

During I/O operations CPU is not used.

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Simple batch system :

I/O
I/O devices (Card Readers, Printers) slow when
compared to CPU.

Solution: Offline Operation (Satellite

Computers)
Speed up computation by loading jobs into
memory from tapes while card reading and
line printing is
done off-line using smaller machines.

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Multiprogramming
Running multiple programs at the same
time
Requires sharing the CPU among multiple
processes

Firefox

Word

javac

Firefox

Word

Transfer of control is called a context

switch
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Multiprogramming
Why multiprogramming?
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O
devices busy at all times.
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code
and data) so CPU always has one to
execute.
A subset of total jobs in system is kept
in memory.
One job selected and CPU is give for
that job.
When it has to wait, OS switches to
another job.
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Multiprogramming

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Time Sharing Systems

Processors time is shared among multiple
users
Multiple users simultaneously access the
system through terminals.

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Multiprogramming Vs Time Sharing

Systems
Multiprogramming maximizes CPU
utilization
Time-sharing minimizes user response
time

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Loading the Operating

System
OS is also a software like any other, but has to be
loaded and run by the OS itself.
The process of initializing the computer and
loading the OS is known as bootstrapping or
booting the system.
The bootstrapping program normally exist in nonvolatile memory and is executed automatically
when the machine is turned on.
The operating system software (kernel) copied into
RAM, usually from the hard disk, during the boot-up.
Once loaded the OS wait for an event to occur (eg:
user typing a command) and process the event.
OS is an event driven software.
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Loading the Operating

System
The kernel remains in RAM while the
computer is on and is in charge of the
overall operation of the computer
system.
The kernel contains the internal
programs for the most often used
operations like file management,
memory management, security.

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Gaining Control
The OS gets the control of the CPU when
either an external event or an internal event
occurs.
External Events
Character typed at the console
Completion of an I/O operation
Timer quantum allowed for a process
expires.
Internal Events
Division by zero,
System call issued by a program
Page Fault
Unauthorized memory access
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Interrupts
External events get the attention of the
CPU through Interrupts.
For example when a disk driver has
finished transferring the requested
data, it generates an interrupt to the
OS to inform the OS that the task is
over.
Interrupts occur asynchronously to the
ongoing activity of the processor. Thus
the times at which interrupts occur are
unpredictable.
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Interrupt Handlers
Interrupt Handlers : Code that get
executed when an interrupt
occurs.
Associated with each type of
interrupt there is a specific
program to handle that type of
interrupts Interrupt handler
(Interrupt service routine)

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Getting the services of

OS
How do the user programs get the service of OS?
User programs access the functionality of the OS through
system calls privileged operations.
Example : open(), close(), fork(),.

The execution of system call change the execution mode of

the CPU to supervisor mode.

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Processes
Process is a fundamental concepts in modern operating
systems.
It was first introduced by the designers of Multics
operating systems in the 1960s.
The programs that reside in main memory are absolutely
different from their counter-parts the program files on
hard disks or any other secondary storage devices.

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Process and a program

A process is a program in execution
An instance of a program running on a
computer.

The entity that can be assigned to and

executed on a processor
A program is a static set of instructions

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Process and a program

A process exists in a limited span of
time. Two or more processes could be
executing the same program, each
using their own data and resources.
A program is a static entity made up of
instructions. A program exists in the
secondary storage till it is deleted. A
program does not perform the action by
itself.

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Process creation and termination

When a new process is created, the operating
system builds the date structures that are
used to manage the process and allocates
space in main memory to the process.
A process may terminates in a number of
ways.
After completion of the instructions.
User terminates (kills) the process explicitly.
For example clicking on the cross button in
the windows applications.
A process may terminate due to abnormal
condition.
When a process finishes, the operating system
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Processes in a typical Linux system

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Uniprocessor
Scheduling
Type of processes
I/O bound processes
Processor bound processes

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Uniprocessor
Scheduling
Types of Scheduling
Long-term scheduling(Job scheduling) : It determines
which programs are admitted to the system for
processing. Job scheduler selects processes from the
queue and loads them into memory for execution.
Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling.
Medium-term scheduling : Medium term scheduling
is in charge of swapping processes between the
main memory and the secondary storage.
Short-term scheduling (low-level scheduling) :
Determines which ready process will be assigned the
CPU when it next becomes available.

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Scheduling Policies
Non-preemptive
Once a process is in the running state,
it will continue until it terminates or
blocks itself for I/O.
Preemptive
Currently running process may be
interrupted and moved to the Ready
state by the OS.
Allows for better service since any one
process cannot monopolize the
processor for very long
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Processor Scheduling
Assigning the processor to the processes.
Turnaround time : Time required for a particular process
to complete, from submission time to completion.
Response time : The time taken in an interactive program
from the issuance of a command to the commence of a
response to that command.
Throughput : Number of processes completed per unit
time. May range from 10 / second to 1 / hour depending
on the specific processes.
Waiting time : How much time a process spends in the
ready queue waiting its turn to get on the CPU.

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Long-term scheduling(Job
scheduling)
Determines which processes are admitted
to the system for processing
Controls the degree of multiprogramming
If more processes are admitted
better CPU usage
less likely that all processes will be
blocked
The long term scheduler may attempt to
keep a mix of processor-bound and I/Obound processes
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Medium-Term
Scheduling
Swapping decisions based on the need
to manage multiprogramming
Done by memory management software

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Logical view of
swapping

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Short-Term Scheduling
Determines which process is going to
execute next (also called CPU
scheduling)
The short term scheduler is known as
the dispatcher
Dispatching the CPU to the process

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Schedulers Comparison
Long Term
Scheduler

Short Term
Scheduler

Medium Term
Scheduler

Job Scheduler

CPU scheduler

Processes swapping
scheduler

Selects processes
from a pool and
loads them into the
memory for
execution

Selects those
processes which are
ready to execute for
dispatching

Swapped out/Reintroduces the

processes into
memory and
execution can be
continued.

Controls the degree

of
multiprogramming

Provides lesser
control over the
degree of
multiprogramming

Controls the degree

of
multiprogramming

Speed is lesser than Speed is fastest

short term
among other two
scheduler
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Speed is in between
(short and long
term schedulers)
55

Queuing Diagram for Scheduling

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Seven state process transition

Diagram
Typically, new
processes are not in
the main memory.

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Seven state process transition

Diagram
Medium
Term
Scheduler

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Long Term
Scheduler

Short Term
Scheduler

58

Process Control Block

(PCB)
All of the information needed to keep track of a
process when switching states is kept in a data
package called a process control block. The process
control block typically contains:
An ID number that identifies the process
Pointers to the locations in the program and its data where
processing last occurred
Register contents
States of various flags and switches
A list of files opened by the process
The priority of the process
The status of all I/O devices needed by the process
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Context Switching
A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the
state or context of a CPU in Process Control block so that a
process execution can be resumed from the same point at a
later time.
Using this technique a context switcher enables multiple
processes to share a single CPU. Context switching is an
essential part of a multitasking operating system features.
When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one
process to execute another, the context switcher saves the
content of all processor registers for the process being removed
from the CPU, in its process control block.
Context switch time is pure overhead.
Context switching can significantly affect performance as
modern computers have a lot of general and status registers to
be saved.
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Context Switching

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Short-term scheduling algorithms

First-come-first served
Round Robin
Shortest Process next

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Objectives of Short-Term Scheduling

User-oriented
Response Time: Elapsed time from the
submission of a request to the beginning of
response
Turnaround Time: Elapsed time from the
submission of a process to its completion
System-oriented
processor utilization
fairness
throughput: number of process completed
per unit time
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First-come-first served
scheduling
Each process joins the end of the Ready
queue.
When the current process ceases to
execute, the process waited the longest
time in the Ready queue is assigned the
CPU.

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Example - FCFS
Proce
ss

Arriv
al
Time

Service
Time

Finis
h
time

Turnarou
nd time

13

18

12

20

12

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Average Turnaround
time
= (3 + 7+ 9+ 12 +
12)/5
= 8.60

65

Shortest Job First

(Shortest Process Next)
Nonpreemptive policy
Process with shortest expected
processing time is selected next
Short process jumps ahead of longer
processes

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Shortest Job First

(Shortest Process Next)
Proce
ss

Arriv
al
Time

Service
Time

Finis
h
time

Turnarou
nd time

15

11

20

14

11

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Average Turnaround
time
= (3 + 7+ 11+ 14 +
3)/5
= 7.60

67

FCFS - Issues
A short process may have to
wait a very long time before it
can execute
Favors CPU-bound processes
I/O processes have to wait
until CPU-bound process
completes
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Round Robin Scheduling

Clock interrupt is generated at periodic
intervals.
When an interrupt occurs, the currently
running process is placed in the ready
queue (preempted)
Next process in the ready queue is
assigned the CPU.
Known as time slicing

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Queuing Diagram

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Round Robin Scheduling

Scheduling Policy Preemption, Time quantum for each
Proce
Arriv
process
= 1 Service Finis Turnarou
Average Turnaround
ss

al
Time

Time

h
time

nd time

18

16

17

13

20

14

15

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time
= (4 + 16+ 13+ 14 +
7)/5
= 10.80

10

15

20

71

Round Robin Scheduling

Scheduling Policy Preemption, Time quantum for each
Proce
Arriv
process
= 4 Service Finis Turnarou
Average Turnaround
ss

al
Time

Time

h
time

nd time

17

15

11

20

14

19

11

time
= ( 3+ 15+ 7+ 14 +
11)/5
= 10.00

Gantt Chart ?

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Priority Scheduling
Scheduler will always choose a process
of higher priority over one of lower
priority
Use multiple ready queues to represent
multiple levels of priority
Lower-priority may suffer starvation
Allow a process to change its priority based
on its age or execution history

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Priority Queuing

Can be either preemptive or nonpreemptive

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Threads
A thread is the smallest schedulable unit in a system
that can be managed independently by an operating
system. A thread can also be viewed as an execution
streams within a single process. Generally a thread
contained inside a process. It is possible to have
processes with one threads or processes with multiple
threads.
All threads of a process share common code, data, and
other resources, including CPU registers.
Allows multiple tasks to be performed simultaneously in a
single address space.
Context switching generates less overhead.

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Threads ..
Threads are very useful whenever a process has multiple
tasks to perform independently of the others.
For example in a word processor, a background thread
may check spelling of a document while a foreground
thread processes user keystrokes, while another thread
may automatically backs up the edited section
periodically.

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Von Neumann Architecture

Hardware components
The hardware for a Von Neumann machine consists of
three principle components; processor, memory, and I/O
facilities.

Both programs and data are stored in the

memory
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