Nuclear Chemistry

Chapter 23

Radioactivity
One of the pieces of evidence for the
fact that atoms are made of smaller
particles came from the work of
Marie Curie (1876-1934).
She discovered radioactivity,
the spontaneous disintegration of
some elements into smaller pieces.

Nuclear Reactions vs.

Normal Chemical Changes
Nuclear reactions involve the nucleus
The nucleus opens, and protons and
neutrons are rearranged
The opening of the nucleus releases a
tremendous amount of energy that holds
the nucleus together called binding
energy
Normal Chemical Reactions involve
electrons, not protons and neutrons

23.1

Types of Radiation
Alpha()apositively

4
charged(+2)heliumisotope 2
weusuallyignorethechargebecauseit
involveselectrons,notprotonsandneutrons

Beta()anelectron
Gamma()pureenergy;
calledarayratherthana
particle

He

0
1
0
0

Other Nuclear Particles

Neutron

Positronapositive
electron
Protonusuallyreferredto
ashydrogen1
Anyotherelementalisotope

1
0

0
1

1
1

Penetrating Ability

Geiger-Mller Counter

23.7

Geiger Counter
Used to detect radioactive substances

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Mass Number
Atomic Number

A
ZX

Element Symbol

proton
1
1
p
H
or
1
1

neutron
1
0n

electron
0
0

e
or
-1
-1

positron
0
0

e
or
+1
+1

particle
4
4
He
or
2
2

-1

+1

23.1

Balancing Nuclear Equations

1. Conserve mass number (A).
The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal
the sum of protons plus neutrons in the reactants.
235
92 U

+ 10n

138
55 Cs

96
37 Rb

+ 2 10n

235 + 1 = 138 + 96 + 2x1

2. Conserve atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge.

The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the
sum of nuclear charges in the reactants.
235
92 U

+ 10n

138
55 Cs

96
37 Rb

92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0

+ 2 10n
23.1

Po decays by alpha emission. Write the balanced

nuclear equation for the decay of 212Po.
212

4
alpha particle - 42He or 2

84Po

A
He
+
2
ZX

212

212 = 4 + A

A = 208

84 = 2 + Z

Z = 82

84Po

212

2He

+ 20882Pb

23.1

Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay

Beta decay
0
N
+
+
7
-1

14

6C

14

Decrease # of neutrons by 1

19K

40

0
Ca
+
+
20
-1

Increase # of protons by 1

40

0n

0
p
+
+
1
-1

Positron decay
B ++10 +

11

6C

11

Increase # of neutrons by 1

19K

38

0
Ar
+
+
18
+1

Decrease # of protons by 1

38

1p

0
n
+
+
0
+1

and have A = 0 and Z = 0

23.2

Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay

Electron capture decay
18 Ar

Cl +

Increase # of neutrons by 1

Mn +

Decrease # of protons by 1

+ -10e

37

0
Fe
+
e
26
-1

55

37

17

55

25

1p
1

+ -10e

n+

Alpha decay
84Po

212

2He

+ 20882Pb

Decrease # of neutrons by 2
Decrease # of protons by 2

Spontaneous fission
98Cf

252

1
2125
In
+
2
49
0n

23.2

Learning Check
What radioactive isotope is produced in the
following bombardment of boron?
10
5

+ 4He
2

? +

1
0

Learning Check
What radioactive isotope is produced in the
following bombardment of boron?
10
5

+ 4He
2

N +

13
7

1
0

Write Nuclear Equations!

Write the nuclear equation for the beta
emitter Co-60.
Co

60
27

+
28

Ni

60

Artificial Nuclear Reactions

New elements or new isotopes of known elements are
produced by bombarding an atom with a
subatomic particle such as a proton or neutron -or even a much heavier particle such as 4He and
11B.
Reactions using neutrons are called

reactions because a ray is usually

emitted.
Radioisotopes used in medicine are often made by
reactions.

Artificial Nuclear Reactions

Example of a

reaction is production

of radioactive 31P for use in studies of P

uptake in the body.

P +

31
15

n --->

1
0

P +

32
15

Transuranium Elements
Elements beyond 92 (transuranium) made
starting with an reaction

U +

U +

1
0

--->

239
93

Np --->

239
94

238
92
239
92

239
93

n --->

239
92

Np + 0-1
Pu +

0
-1

Nuclear Stability

Certain numbers of neutrons and protons are extra stable

n or p = 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126

Like extra stable numbers of electrons in noble gases

(e- = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86)

Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons

are more stable than those with odd numbers of neutron
and protons

All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher

than 83 are radioactive

All isotopes of Tc and Pm are radioactive

23.2

Band of Stability
and Radioactive
Decay

Stability
of Nuclei

Outof>300stableisotopes:
N

Even

Odd

Even

157

52

Odd

50

19
9

31
15

H,63Li,105B,147N,18073Ta

Half-Life
HALF-LIFE is the time that it takes for
1/2 a sample to decompose.
The rate of a nuclear transformation
depends only on the reactant
concentration.

Half-Life

Decayof20.0mgof15O.Whatremainsafter3halflives?
After5halflives?

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

For each duration (half-life), one half of the substance
decomposes.
For example: Ra-234 has a half-life of 3.6 days

If you start with 50 grams of Ra-234

After3.6days>25grams
After7.2days>12.5grams
After10.8days>6.25grams

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

N

daughter

N
rate = t

rate = N

N
= N
t
N = N0e(-t)

lnN = lnN0 - t

N = the number of atoms at time t

N0 = the number of atoms at time t = 0
is the decay constant (sometimes called k)

Ln 2
=
t

k=
23.3

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

ln[N] = ln[N]0 - t

ln [N]

[N]

[N] = [N]0exp(-t)

23.3

Radiocarbon Dating
1
N
+
0n
7

1
C
+
6
1H

14

6C

14

14

0
N
+
+
7
-1

14

t = 5730 years

Uranium-238 Dating
92U

238

4
0
Pb
+
8

+
6
82
2
-1

206

t = 4.51 x 109 years

23.3

Learning Check!
The half life of I-123 is 13 hr. How much of
a 64 mg sample of I-123 is left after 31
hours?

Biological Effects of Radiation

Radiation absorbed dose (rad)
1 rad = 1 x 10-5 J/g of material
Roentgen equivalent for man (rem)
1 rem = 1 rad x Q

Quality Factor
-ray = 1
=1
= 20

23.8

Effects of Radiation

Nuclear Fission
Fission is the splitting of atoms
These are usually very large, so that they are not as stable

Fission chain has three general steps:

1. Initiation. Reaction of a single atom starts the
chain (e.g., 235U + neutron)
2. Propagation.

U fission releases neutrons that

236

initiate other fissions

3. Termination.

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fission

1
U
+
0n
92

235

143
1
Sr
+
Xe
+
3
38
0n + Energy
54
90

Energy = [mass 235U + mass n (mass 90Sr + mass 143Xe + 3 x mass n )] x c2

Energy = 3.3 x 10-11J per 235U

= 2.0 x 1013 J per mole 235U
Combustion of 1 ton of coal = 5 x 107 J
23.5

Representation of a fission process.

Mass Defect
Some of the mass can be converted into
energy
Shown by a very famous equation!

E=mc2
Energy
Mass
Speedoflight

Nuclear binding energy (BE) is the energy required to break

up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons.
BE + 199F

911p + 1010n

E = mc2
BE = 9 x (p mass) + 10 x (n mass) 19F mass
BE (amu) = 9 x 1.007825 + 10 x 1.008665 18.9984
BE = 0.1587 amu

1 amu = 1.49 x 10-10 J

BE = 2.37 x 10-11J
binding energy
binding energy per nucleon =
number of nucleons
2.37 x 10-11 J
= 1.25 x 10-12 J
=
19 nucleons
23.2

Nuclear binding energy per nucleon vs Mass number

nuclear binding energy

nucleon

nuclear stability
23.2

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of
nuclear fission reactions.
The minimum mass of fissionable material required to
generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is the
critical mass.

Non-critical

Critical
23.5

Nuclear Fission & POWER

Currently about 103
nuclear power plants in
the U.S. and about 435
worldwide.
17% of the worlds
energy comes from
nuclear.

Diagram of a nuclear power plant

Nuclear Fission
Annual Waste Production

35,000 tons SO2

4.5 x 106 tons CO2

3.5 x 106
ft3 ash

1,000 MW coal-fired
power plant

70 ft3
vitrified
waste

1,000 MW nuclear
power plant

23.5

Nuclear Fission

Hazards of the
radioactivities in spent
fuel compared to
uranium ore

From Science, Society and Americas Nuclear Waste, DOE/RW-0361 TG

23.5

Chemistry In Action: Natures Own Fission Reactor

Natural Uranium
0.7202 % U-235 99.2798% U-238

Measured at Oklo
0.7171 % U-235

Nuclear Fusion

Fusion
small nuclei combine
2
1

3
1

4
2

He

+ n +
1

Occurs in the sun and other stars

Energy

Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Reaction
2
2
3
1
H
+
H
H
+
1
1
1H
1
3
H
+
1
1H
2

2
Li
+
3
1H

1
He
+
2
0n

2 42He

Energy Released
6.3 x 10-13 J
2.8 x 10-12 J
3.6 x 10-12 J

Tokamak magnetic
plasma
confinement

23.6

Nuclear Fusion
Fusion
Excessive heat can not be contained
Attempts at cold fusion have
FAILED.
Hot fusion is difficult to contain

Radioisotopes in Medicine

1 out of every 3 hospital patients will undergo a nuclear

medicine procedure

24

131

I, t = 14.8 hr, emitter, thyroid gland activity

123

I, t = 13.3 hr, ray emitter, brain imaging

18

99m

Na, t = 14.8 hr, emitter, blood-flow tracer

F, t = 1.8 hr, emitter, positron emission tomography

Tc, t = 6 hr, ray emitter, imaging agent
Brain images
with 123I-labeled
compound
23.7

Chemistry In Action: Food Irradiation

Dosage

Effect

Up to 100 kilorad

Inhibits sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlics.

Inactivates trichinae in pork. Kills or prevents insects
from reproducing in grains, fruits, and vegetables.

100 1000 kilorads

Delays spoilage of meat poultry and fish. Reduces

salmonella. Extends shelf life of some fruit.

1000 to 10,000 kilorads

Sterilizes meat, poultry and fish. Kills insects and

microorganisms in spices and seasoning.