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TRANSDUCER

CHAPTER 6

1.0 What is transducer?


Non-electrical physical
quantity: temperature,
Example
sound or light
1. Thermoelectric:
Thermocouples
(Gandingan terma)
Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD)
Thermistors (termistor)

2. Electromechanical (or
actuators):
Strain Gauge (tolok terikan)
Electrical
signal

3. Electromagnetic (position
transducer):

1.1 Difference between


Transducer & Sensor
Sensor
A physical device
or biological organ that
detects, or senses, a
signal or physical
condition and chemical
compounds

Transducer
An electrical or
electronic, that converts
one type of energy to
another. Most
transducers are either
sensors or actuators.
Often, transducers are
equipped with signal
conditioning circuits to
convert physical quatities

1.2 Classification of transducer


Self generating type (active transducer) do not require
an external power, and produce an analog voltage or
current when stimulated by some physical form of energy
Thermocouple, Photovoltaic cell, Moving coil
generator
Modulator (Passive transducers)- require an external
power, and their output is a
measure of some variation, such as resistance or
capacitance. E.g.:

Slide-wire resistor- Slider or contact varies the


resistance in a potentiometer, rheostat or bridge
circuit.

Resistance strain gauge- Resistance wire, foil or

1.3 signal conditioning

1.4 Choices of transducer


criteria

2.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
Resistive position
transducers
Displacement transducers
Strain gauge

Temperature

Electrical
signal

2.1 Thermocouple
In 1821, T.J. Seeback discovered that an electric
potential occurs when 2 different metals are
joined into a loop and the two junctions are held
at different temperatures.
Seeback emf a voltage difference between
the two ends of the conductor that depends on
the temperature difference of the ends and a
material property.
If the ends of the wire have the same
temperature, no emf occurs, even if the middle
of the wire is hotter or colder.

2.1.1 Thermocouple - Principle


Twisting or welding of 2
wires

Measuring
junction - "hot"
junctions
which is
exposed to
measured

Reference
junction - "cold"
junction
The other
junction
which is kept

2.1.1 Thermocouple - Principle


In normal operation, cold junction is placed in an ice
bath

2.1.2 Different Thermocouple


Types

Table: Compositions and Letter Designations of the Standardized Ther

T/C
Typ
e

Conductors
Positive

Conductors
Negative

Temp
Range

Sensitiv
ity

Nickelchromium alloy

Copper-nickel
alloy

Iron

Copper-nickel
alloy

Nickelchromium alloy

Nickelaluminum
alloy

-200C up to
1100C

41 V/C

Nickelchromiumsilicon alloy

Nickel-siliconmagnesium
alloy

can withstand
temperatures
in excess of
1200C

39 V/C
at 900C

-200C up to
68 V/C
+90C
-40C to +75C 55 V/C

2.1.3 Magnitude of thermal


EMF
E c(T1 T2 ) k (T12 T22 )
where
c and k = constants of the thermocouple materials
T1 = the temperature of the hot junction
T2 = the temperature of the cold or reference
junction

2.1.4 Problem
A thermocouple was found to have linear
calibration between 0C and 400C with emf
at maximum temperature (reference junction
temperature 0C) equal to 20.68 mV.
a) Determine the correction which must be
made to the indicated emf if the cold
junction temperature is 25C.
b) If the indicated emf is 8.82 mV in the
thermocouple circuit, determine the
temperature of the hot junction.

2.1.4 Solution
(a)Sensitivity of the thermocouple
=
20.68/(400-0)
=
0.0517 mV/C
Since the thermocouple is calibrated at the
reference junction of 0C and is being used
at 25C, then the correction which must be
made, Ecorr between 0C and 25C
Ecorr = 0.0517 x 25
Ecorr = 1.293 mV

2.1.4 Solution
(b) Indicated emf between the hot junction and
reference junction at 25C => 8.92 mV
Difference of temperature between hot and
cold junctions = 8.92/0.0517 = 172.53C
Since the reference junction temperature is
25C,
hot junction temperature = 172.53 + 25 =
197.53C.

2.1.5 Thermocouple applications

Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring


over a large temperature range, up to 1800 K.
They are less suitable for applications where smaller
temperature differences need to be measured with
high accuracy, for example the range 0100 C with
0.1 C accuracy. For such applications, thermistors
and RTDs are more suitable.
disadvantages

Low output voltage


Amplifiers are needed
Difficult to measure low temperature change

2.2 Resistance temperature


detector (RTD)

Resistance temperature detectors


(RTDs), also called resistance
thermometers, are temperature sensors
that exploit the predictable change in
electrical resistance of some materials with
changing temperature.
Temperature

Metal Resistance

The resistance ideally varies linearly


with temperature.

2.2.1 Resistance vs Temperature


Approximations
A straight line has
been drawn between
the points of the curve
that represent
temperature, T1 and T2,
and T0 represent the
midpoint temperature.

2.2.1 Resistance vs Temperature


Approximations
Straight line equation

R(T ) R(To )[1 o T ] T1 T T2


R(T)
= approximation of resistance at
temperature T
R(T0)
= resistance at temperature T0
o = fractional change in resistance per
degree of temperature at T0
T = T - T0

2.2.1 Resistance vs Temperature


Linear Approximations
equation

Straight line

1
R2 R1
o
(
)
R (T0 ) T2 T1

R2
R1

= resistance at T2
= resistance at T1

Example

2.2.2 RTD quadratic


approximation
More accurate representation of R-T curve over
some span
of temperatures.

R (T ) R (To )[1 1T 2 (T ) 2 ] T1 T T2
R(T) = quadratic approximation of
resistance at temperature T
R(T0)
= resistance at temperature T0
1 = linear fractional change in resistance
with temperature
2 = quadratic fractional change in
resistance with temperature
T = T - T0

Example
Solution

2.2.3 Performance Specifications


Performance of RTD is
based on:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Nick
el

Tungst
en
Copper

Sensitivity
Response time
Temperature range
Material
considerations

Platinum: very repeatable, sensitive, expensive


Nickel: not quite repeatable, more sensitive, less
expensive

Platinu
m

2.2.3 RTD - sensitivity

Sensitivity is shown by the value o


Platinum 0.004/ C
Nickel 0.005/ C

Thus, for a 100 platinum RTD, a change


of only 0.4 would be expected if the
temperature is changed by 1C

0.5
100 C

0.4
1 00C

2.2.3 RTD response time


Type of Sensor Time
Response
Direct immersion
3 seconds
Aerospace/nuclear
style sensor

0.3 to

1/8 inch diameter


seconds
300 series SST
Sheath

2 to 3

3/16 inch diameter


seconds
300 series SST
Sheath

4 to 5

Generally 0.5 to 5
seconds or more The
slowness of response is
due principally to the
slowness of thermal
conductivity in bringing
the device into thermal
equilibrium with its
environment.

2.2.3
The
operation
range
of
Temperature range
RTD depends on the type of
metal.
Example:

Platinum RTD have a operation


range of -100C to 650C.
Nickel RTD have a operation
range of -180C to 300C.

2.2.4 Construction of a platinum


resistance thermometer

Wire is in a coil to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity


to decrease response time.

2.2.4 Construction of a platinum


resistance thermometer

Protect from the environment

2.2.5 Advantages and


Disadvantages of RTD
Advantages
Stable, reliable
and repeatable
than
thermocouples.
Linear relationship
between
temperature, T
and resistance,
R.

Disadvantages

More expensive than


thermocouple.
Requires external current
source to operate.
Slower response time than
thermocouple.
Self-heating occurs.
Smaller temperature range
(operation range) than
thermocouple.

2.3 Thermistor
Semiconductor resistance sensors
Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively
to temperature and their coefficient of
resistance is of the order of 10 times higher
than that of platinum or copper.
Temperature
resistance
Symbol

semiconductor

2.3.1 Thermistor: resistance vs


temperature

2.3.2 Advantages and


Disadvantages of Thermistors
Advantages:

Stable, reliable and repeatable than RTD


and thermocouples.
More accurate than RTD and thermocouple.
More sensitive than RTD and thermocouple.

Disadvantages:

Smaller temperature range (operation


range) than RTD and thermocouples.
Nonlinear relationship between
temperature, T and resistance, R.

3.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers

Distanc
e

Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors

Resistive position
transducers
Displacement transducers
Strain gauge

Electrical
signal

3.0 Resistive position


transducers

Distanc
e

Electrical
signal

3.1 Resistive position


transducers

3.1 Resistive position


transducers
R1
R2

R2
Vo
VT
R1 R2

Example 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of
3 cm as shown in Figure 1. The total resistance,
RT of the potentiometer is 5 k and the applied
voltage VT is 5 V. When the wiper is 0.9 cm from
beginning end. What is the value of the output
voltage Vo ?
Ra

Figure 1

VT

x
x

VL

Rb

RL

Solution
0.9cm
R2
x5000
1500

3.0cm

R2
1500

VL VT
x5.0V 1.5V
RT
5000

Example 2
Using the same figure 1, calculate the
resistance value when the shaft stroke is
located at +0.85 cm and -0.38cm from midstroke.
By assuming that RL >> Ra + Rb, prove that

Rb
VL
VT
Ra Rb
Draw the output voltage vs. the displacement

Solution
0.85 1.5
1.5 0.38
R1
5
and R2
5
3
3
RbRL
VL
VT
RaRL RbRL RaRb
sinceRL Ra Rb ,RL canbeeliminated
fromtheequation
to forma simplerequation
:
Rb
VL
VT
Ra Rb

proven
!!

Example 3
Sketch of Output?
VL (V) versus Displacement (cm) should it
be linear or nonlinear?
Parameters?
Displacement range from 0 3 cm
Resistance range from 0 5 k
Output range from 0 5.0 V

4.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors

Resistive position transducers


Displacement transducers
Strain gauge

4.0 Displacement transducers


Capacitive transducer
Inductive transducer
Variable inductance transducer

4.1.0 Capacitive transducers


The capacitance of a parallel-plate
capacitor is given by

o A
C
d
= dielectric constant
o = 8.854 x 1o-12, in farad per meter
A = the area of the plate, in square meter
d = the plate spacing in meters

4.1.2 Capacitive transducers


Value

4.1.2 Capacitive transducers


Value

4.2.0 Inductive transducers

4.2.0 Tachometer with permanent


magnet stator

4.2.0 Tachometer with permanent


magnet rotor

4.3.1 Variable Inductance


Transducers

4.3.2 Variable Inductance


Transducers - construction

4.3.3 Variable Inductance


Transducers schematic diagram

4.3.4 Variable Inductance


Transducers operation
When the core is in the center, the voltage
induced in the two secondaries is equal.
When the core is moved in one direction
from the center, the voltage induced in
one winding is increased and that in the
others is decreased.
Movement in the opposite direction reverse
the effect.

4.3.4 Variable Inductance


Transducers operation
Core at the center
V1 = V2
Vo = 0

4.3.4 Variable Inductance


Transducers operation
Core moves towards S1
V1 > V2
Vo increase

4.3.4 Variable Inductance


Transducers operation
Core moves towards S2
V2 > V1
Vo decrease

4.3.5 Variable Inductance


Transducers with absolute
magnitude

5.0 TRANSDUCER
Temperature transducers
Thermocouples
Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Thermistors

Resistive position transducers


Displacement transducers
Strain gauge

5.1 Stress
Stress is a measure of the average
amount of force exerted per unit area. It is
a measure of the intensity of the total
internal forces acting within a body across
imaginary internal surfaces, as a reaction
to external applied forces and body
forces. It was introduced into the theory of
elasticity by Cauchy around 1822. Stress is
a concept that is based on the concept of
continuum.

5.1 Stress
In general, stress is expressed as

is the average stress, also called


engineering or nominal stress
and is the force acting over the area
.

5.2 Strain
Strain is the geometrical expression of
deformation caused by the action of stress
on a physical body. Strain is calculated by
first assuming a change between two body
states: the beginning state and the final
state. Then the difference in placement of
two points in this body in those two states
expresses the numerical value of strain.
Strain therefore expresses itself as a
change in size and/or shape.

5.2 Strain
The strain is defined as the fractional
change in length

l
strain
l
Strain is thus a unitless quantity

5.2 Strain
The strain is defined as the fractional
change in length

l
strain
l
Strain is thus a unitless quantity

5.3 Stress-strain curve

5.4 Strain gauge

L
From the equation of resistance,
R
A
R = resistance
= specific resistance of the conductor
material
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square
meters

5.4 Strain gauge


To measure
pressure

When a strain produced by a force is


applied on the wires, L increase and A
decrease.

5.4 Strain gauge


L increase
A decrease

L
From the equation of resistance,
R
A
R increase

5.5 Strain gauge the gauge


factor
R / R
K
L / L
K = the gauge factor
R = the initial resistance in ohms (without
strain)
R = the change of initial resistance in
ohms

5.5 Strain gauge the gauge


factor
R / R
K
L / L
K = the gauge factor
R = the initial resistance in ohms (without
strain)
R = the change of initial resistance in
ohms

5.5 Strain gauge the gauge


factor
R / R
K
G

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