Chapter 6

How Cells Release Energy

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Cells Use Energy in Food to Make

ATP

Every organism requires a steady

food supply to survive.
The bird eats the caterpillar, the
caterpillar ate the trees leaves, and
the tree makes its own food by
photosynthesis.

Section 6.1

Bluebird: Getty Images/Purestock RF

Cells Use Energy in Food to Make

ATP

All plants and animals, as well as

many microbes, use food (such as
glucose) and oxygen gas to
produce ATP, an energy carrier
used to power cell activities.

Section 6.1

Bluebird: Getty Images/Purestock RF

Cells Use Energy in Food to Make

ATP

The process of using glucose and

oxygen to produce ATP is called
aerobic respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
36ATP
(Glucose)

Section 6.1

Bluebird: Getty Images/Purestock RF

6CO2 + 6H2O +

Cellular Respiration Is Linked to

Breathing
Inhaled oxygen is
consumed in cellular
respiration. Carbon
dioxide, produced as a
byproduct, is then
exhaled.

Section 6.1

Mitochondrion: Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR/Science Source

Figure 6.1

Cellular Respiration Is Linked to

Breathing
The cell uses the ATP
formed during cellular
respiration to do work,
such as muscle
contraction.

Section 6.1

Mitochondrion: Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR/Science Source

Figure 6.1

Cellular Respiration Occurs in

Three Stages
ATP synthesis requires
energy input. Cellular
respiration releases
energy from glucose in
several steps.

Section 6.2

Figure 6.2

Cellular Respiration Occurs in

Three Stages
During glycolysis,
glucose is split into
two three-carbon
molecules of
pyruvate.

Section 6.2

Figure 6.2

Cellular Respiration Occurs in

Three Stages
The pyruvate
molecules then enter a
mitochondrion, where
they are disassembled
into carbon dioxide
molecules during the
Krebs cycle.

Section 6.2

Figure 6.2

Cellular Respiration Occurs in

Three Stages
Glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle transfer
some of the potential
energy in glucose to
ATP. Meanwhile,
electrons are
transferred to NADH
and FADH2.

Section 6.2

Figure 6.2

Cellular Respiration Occurs in

Three Stages
NADH and FADH2
unload electrons at the
electron transport
chain, where the
potential energy in the
electrons is used to
produce more ATP.

Section 6.2

Figure 6.2

Mitochondria Produce Most ATP

Many of the reactions

of cellular respiration
occur in mitochondria.

Section 6.3

Figure 6.3

Mitochondria Produce Most ATP

Mitochondria have two

phospholipid bilayers:
an outer membrane
and an inner
membrane.

Section 6.3

Figure 6.3

Mitochondria Produce Most ATP

Many enzymes span

the inner membrane,
catalyzing the
reactions of the
electron transport
chain.

Section 6.3

Figure 6.3

Mitochondria Produce Most ATP

Between the
mitochondrial
membranes is an
intermembrane
compartment.

Section 6.3

Figure 6.3

Mitochondria Produce Most ATP

The space within the

inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix,
which houses the
reactions of the Krebs
cycle.

Section 6.3

Figure 6.3

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

Glycolysis occurs
outside of the
mitochondrion, in
the cytoplasm.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

During glycolysis, a
glucose molecule is
split into two threecarbon pyruvate
molecules.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

The enzymes of
glycolysis extract
some of the
potential energy
stored in glucose.
The process yields
two ATP molecules
and two electroncarrying NADH
molecules.
Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

Glycolysis requires
an input of two ATP
to activate
glucose.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

The activated
glucose is then split
into two
3-carbon
molecules.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

Each of the 3carbon molecules

proceeds to the
energy extraction
reactions of
glycolysis.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

First, each 3-carbon

molecule is
oxidized, producing
two NADH
molecules.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

Then, each 3carbon molecule

donates its
phosphate groups
to ADP
molecules,
producing ATP
molecules via
substrate-level
phosphorylatio
n.
Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

In substrate-level phosphorylation, an enzyme
transfers a phosphate from a molecule to ADP.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.1

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

In total, four ATP

are produced.
Recall that two ATP
were used to start
the reactions. The
net yield is two
ATP.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

Note that these

reactions do not
require oxygen.
Glycolysis can
therefore occur in
anaerobic
conditions.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

Glycolysis yields
two ATP molecules,
two electroncarrying NADH
molecules, and two
pyruvates.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Glycolysis Splits Glucose

Each glycolysis molecule has a name.

Section 6.4

Figure 6.4

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
The reactions of
Krebs cycle and the
electron transport
chain require
oxygen gas. These
reactions yield
much more ATP
than glycolysis.

Section 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
The two pyruvate
molecules produced
in glycolysis undergo
an oxidation reaction
as they enter the
mitochondrion (this
is sometimes called
the transition step).

Section 6.5

Figure 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
A carbon atom is
stripped from each
pyruvate, and leaves
the cell as a carbon
dioxide molecule. At
the same time, NAD+
is reduced to NADH.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
Through this
process, each
pyruvate molecule
is converted to an
acetyl CoA
molecule.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
Each acetyl CoA
molecule then
enters the Krebs
cycle.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
During the Krebs
cycle, the two acetyl
CoA molecules are
oxidized, yielding
4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH,
and 2 FADH2.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP

The Krebs cycle

occurs in several
steps.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.6

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP

Acetyl CoA
combines with a 4carbon molecule,
yielding citrate.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.6

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP

Citrate is then
rearranged and
oxidized, yielding
3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and
1 ATP per turn. The
ATP is produced via
substrate-level
phosphorylation.
Section
6.5

Figure 6.6

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP

The original fourcarbon molecule is

re-created, and the
cycle starts again.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.6

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
Glycolysi
s

Acetyl
CoA
formatio
n

Krebs
cycle

So far, aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule

has yielded only four ATP.
Section 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
Glycolysi
s

Acetyl
CoA
formatio
n

Krebs
cycle

But 10 NADH molecules have been produced, as well

as two FADH2.
Section 6.5

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATPtheir electrons to the
NADH and FADH donate
2

electron transport chain, where energy from the

electrons is used to produce many ATP.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.7

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP the transport chain,
As electrons travel through
carrier molecules use the potential energy of the
electrons to transport hydrogen ions into the
intermembrane compartment.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.7

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
At the end of the transport chain, electrons are
donated to an oxygen atom, which combines with
hydrogens to form water.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.7

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
The hydrogen ions move
down their concentration
gradient from the intermembrane compartment into
the matrix through
ATP synthase.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.7

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
ATP synthase produces
ATP via chemiosmotic
phosphorylation.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.7

Aerobic Respiration Yields Many

ATP
The electron transport chain produces 34 ATP.

Section 6.5

Figure 6.7

Cellular Respiration of One

Glucose Yields 36 ATP
Glycolysi
s

Section 6.5

Acetyl
CoA
formatio
n

Krebs
cycle

Electron
transport
34

Cellular Respiration of One

Glucose Yields 36 ATP
Glycolysis and Krebs cycle
each produce 2 ATP, and
the electron transport
chain produces 34 ATP.
Transporting NADH into the
mitochondrion requires 2
ATP, making the total
production of ATP equal to
36.

Section 6.6

Figure 6.8

Other Food Molecules Enter the

Energy-Extracting Pathways
Proteins and fats are also
used as energy sources
for the cell. These
molecules enter the
energy-extracting
pathways and produce
ATP.

Section 6.7

Avocado: Digital Vision/Getty Images RF

Figure 6.9

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis

Organisms produce ATP in

the absence of oxygen, as
well.

Section 6.8

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis

Glycolysis produces ATP

and does not require
oxygen.

Section 6.8

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis

However, glycolysis does

require NAD+, which is recreated in the electron
transport chain of cells
undergoing respiration.

Section 6.8

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis

In the absence of oxygen,

a cell can re-create NAD+
other pathways, called
anaerobic respiration
and fermentation.

Section 6.8

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis

In anaerobic respiration,
NADH donates electrons
which are oxidized at an
electron transport chain
that uses electron
acceptor molecules other
than O2.

Section 6.8

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis

Fermentation uses
pyruvate to oxidize NADH,
producing alcohol, lactic
acid, or other byproducts.

Section 6.8

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis
In alcoholic fermentation,
NADH reduces pyruvate to
ethanol. NAD+ is recreated.

Section 6.8

Beer: Adam Woolfitt/Corbis; Yogurt: Scimat/Science Source

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis
In alcoholic fermentation,
NADH reduces pyruvate to
ethanol. NAD+ is recreated.

Section 6.8

Beer: Adam Woolfitt/Corbis; Yogurt: Scimat/Science Source

In lactic acid fermentation,

NADH reduces pyruvate to
lactic acid. NAD+ is recreated.

Figure 6.1

Fermentation Generates
ATP Only in Glycolysis
During fermentation,
oxidation of a glucose
molecule yields only 2
ATP.

Section 6.8

Beer: Adam Woolfitt/Corbis; Yogurt: Scimat/Science Source

Figure 6.1

Photosynthesis and
Respiration Are Ancient
Pathways
Photosynthesis and
respiration are
connected in many
ways: water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide,
sugars.

Section 6.9

Figure 6.1

Photosynthesis and
Respiration Are Related

Section 6.9