Measurement of Fluid Flow

Main types of Flow Rate Measurement

Methods:
Batch methods: weight-time and bucket-stopwatch
Pressure drop based (obstruction meters): Venturi, Flow
Nozzles, Flow Orifices
Rotameters
Turbine and propeller meters
Vortex Shedding meters
Magnetic Flow-meters
Velocity-based
Weirs

Batch Methods:
simple but accurate

Bucket and stopwatch method

(may be messy!)

Batch Methods:
simple but accurate
Weight-time method (still simple, but tidy!)

Characteristics of Pipe Flow

For known velocity profile, it is enough to measure one
(e.g. centerline) velocity to determine the total flow rate
For unknown velocity profile, the cross-section can be
mapped by a grid of velocity data (often done for air
ducts).

Obstruction
(Differential
Pressure)
meters:

The basic operating principle of differential pressure

Flowmeter is based on the premise that the pressure drop
across the meter , P is proportional to the square of the
flow rate.
The flow rate is obtained by measuring the P and
extracting the square root.
These are the most common units in use today.

Meters have two basic elements:

Primary element: causes a change in K.E., which create P.
The unit must be properly matched to:
Pipe size, Flow conditions & Fluid properties.

Secondary element: measures P and provides the signal or

read-out that is converted to the actual flow rate.

For incompressible fluid

C=Discharge Coefficient
K= Flow Coefficient

Venturi Characteristic

Venturi can be installed in large diameter pipes using

flanged, welded or threaded-ended fittings.
It can be used with most liquids, including those having a
high solids content.
High accuracy, good pressure recovery, and resistance to
abrasion are the primary advantages of the venturi.
Considerably greater cost and space requirements than with
the orifice and nozzle

Nozzle Characteristic

The flow-nozzle possesses the advantages of the venturi,

except that it has lower pressure recovery, plus the
physical advantage of shorter physical length.
It is expensive as compare to orifice and is relatively
difficult to install properly.

Orifice Characteristics

Orifice is inexpensive, and may often be installed between

existing pipe flanges.

However, its pressure recovery is poor, and it is specially

susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from Wear and abrasion.

It may also be damaged by the pressure transients because

of its lower physical strength .

Obstruction Meters for Compressible Fluids

Introduce an Expansion Factor, Y.

Mass flow rate:

For Nozzles and Venturis:

For Square Edged Orifice:

The disadvantage of the Obstruction Meters is the

pressure drop varies as the square of the flow rate.
So for the wide range of flow rate wide range of
pressure measuring equipment will be needed.

The Variable-Area Meter

Indication is linear with the flow rate.
Two essential parts:
1. The float
2. The tapered tube

Rotameter:
Four forces act on the float:
1. A downward Gravity Force
2. An Upward Buoyant Force
3. Pressure Force
4. Viscous Drag Force

Very simple yet versatile flow measurement devices for use

on all types of liquids, gases and steam.
They operate on the variable area principle, where the
flowing fluid changes the position of a float, piston, or vane to
open a larger area for the passage of the fluid.
The position of the float varies directly with the flow rate.
Its exact position is at the point where the differential
pressure between the upper and lower surfaces balance the
weight of the float.

Because flow rates can be read directly on a scale mounted

next to the tube, no secondary flow reading devices are not
necessary.

However, automatic sensing devices can be used to sense

the float's position and transmit a flow signal.

Advantages:
Uniform scale over the range of the instrument,
Fixed pressure loss at all flow rates,
Many corrosive fluids may be handled without complication,
Capacity may be changed with relative ease by changing the
float and/ or tube.

Disadvantages:
Meter must be installed vertically,
Float may not be visible when opaque fluids are used,
It cannot be used with liquids carrying large percentages of
solids in suspension,
For high pressures and temperatures, it is expensive.

Turbine-Type Meter

Turbine Flowmeter consists of a multiple-bladed rotor

mounted within a non-magnetic pipe, perpendicular to the
fluid flow.

The rotor spins as the fluid passes through the blades.

The rotor speed is a direct function of the flow rate.

Rotor speed can be measured simply and accurately by

counting the rate at which turbine blades pass a given point,
using a magnetic detector to produce voltage pulses.

By feeding these voltage pulses to an electronic pulse-rate

meter,one can measure flow rate; by accumulating the total
number of pulses during a time interval, the total flow is
obtained.

Advantages/Disadvantages:
Very good accuracy, particularly with low-viscosity
fluids.
Operation over wide range of pressure, temperature and
fluids.
Flexibility in flow control and Computer interfacing.
Intrusive method -pressure drops.
Bearing wear is a major concern.

Magnetic Flowmeter

E=BDV*10-8

Vortex Shedding Meters

Vortex meters make use of a natural phenomena that

occurs when a fluid flows around a bluff body (vortex
Shedder).

Vortices are shed alternatively downstream of the

object

The three major components of the the meter are:

1. A bluff body mounted across the Flowmeter bore.
2. A sensor to detect the the vortex and to generate electrical
impulse. The vortices cause a1ternating forces on the shedder;
piezoelectric and strain-gauges can be used to detect it. The
interruption of ultrasonic beams by the passing vortices can be
used to detect it .
3. A signal amplification and conditioning stage for low flow
rate measurements.
Use for slurries or high viscosity liquids are not
recommended.

Main types of Fluid Velocity

Measurement Methods:
Pressure Probes: Pitot Tube, Pitot-Static (Pitot-Prandtl)
probe.
Thermal Anemometry: single wire probe, cross-wire
probe, flying hot wire.
Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
Ultrasonic Probes

Pitot Tube
For incompressible flow
( V < 0.2a, i.e. M < 0.3):

V 2
pm ps
2
2 pm p s
V

where V is the free-stream velocity, pm is the measured pressure

at the probe tip, ps is static pressure, is the fluid density, a is
sound propagation speed and M is the Mach number.

Pitot-Static probe
Static pressure is difficult to measure in general geometry.
It would be more convenient if we could measure static
pressure by the same probe. This is accomplished by a Pitotstatic probe (Pitot-Prandl probe).
ps

U
ps

Compressibility effects
There are two cases when compressibility
needs to be accounted for:
Subsonic, but compressible flow (Mach number,
0.3 < M < 1)
Supersonic flow (M > 1)

 For 0.3 < M < 1:

U
2 pv
pv pt p
Cc U
2
Cc
2

M2
M4
Cc 1
2k
...
4
24
U
M ;
a

a kRT (sound speed) ;

We need few iterations to get the Cc right.

k = 1.4 for air and most diatomic gases.

where

cp
cv

 For M > 1, use Rayleigh relation

k p pt
U 2
k 1 p

k 1
k

Pitot tube in a
supersonic flow
(image is
obtained using
Schlieren
photography)

Yaw angle sensitivity

If the probe is at an angle to
the flow, the measured pressures
will give an error in velocity
calculations. For a simple Pitotstatic probe with a hemispheric
head, the error is significant for
yaw angles larger than 15
degrees:

Multiple hole probes (5, 7, 18, ...)

They are used to
detect the yaw angle
and thus determine
the velocity vector
orientation as well.
Each hole is
connected to a
separate pressure
transducer.

Thermal Anemometry

Scattering Measurements

Laser
Doppler
Anemometry

Ultrasonic flow-meters

Ultrasonic flow-meters employs frequency shift

(Doppler Effect) of an ultrasonic signal reflected by
suspended particles or bubbles present in the fluid.

Ultrasonic sound of known frequency is transmitted into

a pipe with flow liquids & the reflected wave with slightly
different frequency is received by the receiver.

The frequency difference is directly proportional to the

flow of liquid.

 Most devices require that the fluid contain at least 25

ppm of particles or bubbles having diameters of 30 micron
or more.
Ultrasonic measurement of gas flow is not common.
Meters available as in-line pipe sections with installed
transducers or as clamp-on devices.
Suitable electronics are used to display fluid flow rates
or total flow quantities.

Advantages:
Non-intrusive,
No pressure drop,
Good accuracy can be maintained without frequent field
calibration.
Can be used to measure the flow of liquids & slurries
which ordinarily cause damage to conventional sensor

Disadvantages:
Very expensive,
Measures particle velocity which may be different from
that of the fluid.
Doppler shift is proportional. to the sound velocity in
fluid which depends on pressure & fluid composition.

Calibration of Flow Measuring Devices

Weirs