Composite Materials

Composite Materials
Definition: A composite material is a macroscopic
combination of two or more distinct materials, having a
recognisable interface between them
Composite materials contain a continuous matrix constituent
that binds together and provides form to an array of a stronger,
stiffer reinforcement constituent. The resulting composite
material has a balance of structural properties that is superior
to either constituent material alone
Composites are used not only for their structural properties,
but also for electrical, thermal, tribological and environmental
applications

Evolution of Composite Materials

The three key historical developments in composites:
1. Commercial availability of fibreglass filaments in 1935 led
to use of fibre reinforced plastics (FRP) in aircraft radomes in
1942, FRP translucent sheet in 1949 and in the 1950s to
developments in FRP boat hulls, car bodies and truck cabs
2. The search for lighter, stiffer structures led to the
development of aramid (1965) & second generation carbon
fibres (1963) along with the development of epoxies (1937),
phenolics (1969) and other thermosetting resins.
3. The development of methods of analysis for composite
structures

Classification of Composites
Classification may be done in two ways: (a) by type of matrix
and (b) by form of reinforcement
(a) Major types of composites include organic matrix
composites (OMC), metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic
matrix composites (CMC). OMC includes polymer matrix
composites (PMC) and carbon matrix or carbon-carbon
composites (CCC)
(b) Types of reinforcement include particulate, whisker,
continuous fibre laminated and woven composites (by
weaving, braiding or knitting the fibre bundles or tows)

Advanced Composite Materials

Modern structural composites or Advanced Composites are a
blend of two or more components stiff, long fibres and a
binder or matrix that holds the fibres in place
The resulting composite is generally composed of layers
(laminae) of the fibres and matrix stacked to achieve the
desired properties in one or more directions
The commercially available reinforcement materials include
fibre-glass, carbon, aramid, polyethylene, boron, silicon
carbide, silicon nitride, silica, alumina
Thermoset matrix materials for composites include polyesters
& vinylesters, epoxy, bismaleimide, cyanate, phenolic,
polyimide. Thermoplastic resins include poly- ether ether
ketone (PEEK), poly- phenylene sulfide (PPS)

Matrices
Role of matrix in fibre reinforced composite:
To distribute or transfer loads between fibres
To provide barrier against adverse environment
To protect surface of fibres from mechanical abrasion in the
structure and before fabrication
Keep fibres in place in the structure
Control the electrical and chemical properties
Carry interlaminar shear stresses under bending loads and inplane shear stresses under torsional loads

Desirable Properties of Matrix

Minimize moisture absorption
Wet and bond to fibre
Flow to penetrate completely and eliminate voids during
compacting and curing process
Be elastic in order to transfer loads to fibres
Have strength at elevated and low temperatures
Have good chemical resistance
Have low shrinkage & coefficient of thermal expansion
Have reasonable strength, modulus & elongation (>fibre)
Be easily processible
Have dimensional stability (maintain shape)

Matrix Materials

Thermoset Matrices
Thermoset matrices form the most widely used class of matrix
materials in advanced polymer based composites
A thermosetting matrix sets at some temperature and cannot be
reshaped by subsequent heating
In general, thermosetting polymers contain two or more
ingredients, a resinous matrix and a curing agent
Solidification of composite matrix starts when resin and curing
agent are mixed or when matrix is heated, causing a reaction
Thermosets include polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, polyimide,
bismaleimide, with epoxy having a dominant position in
aircraft structures
To increase damage tolerance in aircraft structures, thermoset
matrix resins are toughened by incorporation of dispersed
second phase of rubber or thermoplastic particles

Advantages of Epoxy Matrices

Wide range of properties due to availability of large number or
starting materials, curing agents & modifiers
Absence of volatiles during curing process
Low shrinkage during cure
Excellent resistance to chemicals and solvents
Excellent adhesion wide variety of fibres, fillers
High or low strength and flexibility
Resistance to creep and fatigue
Good electrical properties
Solid or liquid resins available in uncured state
Wide range of curing options

Disadvantages of Epoxy Matrices

Relatively high cost and long curing time

Resins somewhat toxic in uncured state
Heat distortion point lowered by moisture absorption
Changes in dimensions & physical properties upon absorption
or moisture
Use (dry) limited to approx 200 deg C upper temperature
Difficult to combine toughness & high temp resistance
High coefficient of thermal expansion
High degree of smoke liberation in a fire
May be sensitive to ultraviolet light degradation

Advantages of Thermoplastic Composites

Enhanced processability due to reduced cycle times, no low
temperature storage requirement, less energy intensive,
absence of solvents (most systems), recycling
High temperature stability
High toughness and damage tolerance
Higher strains to failure
Excellent damping characteristics
Greatly reduced moisture absorption
Low outgassing and better radiation tolerance
Improved solvent tolerance

Disadvantages of Thermoplastic Composites

Prepreg tapes are stiff and lack good drape and tack of the
thermosets
Semicrystalline thermoplastic materials require carefully
controlled cooling schedule after consolidation of composite to
develop required degree of crystallinity
Long term performance data base for materials selection and
composite design not available
Thermoplastic prepregs and hybrid yarns and fabrics are high
cost materials
Higher temperature consolidation requirement leads to higher
temperature equipment capability, higher cost

Sandwich Panels

Sandwich Panel is a panel consisting of two thin face sheets bonded to a

thick, lightweight honeycomb or foam core
Light weight core acts as support for the thin composite skins and prevents
them from buckling when the component is subjected to bending and
twisting loads
Sandwich panel is similar to an I section beam, where flanges take the
tension and compression loads and the web takes the shear
In aerospace structures, skin materials used are carbon epoxy, Kevlar
epoxy, glass epoxy composites
Core materials include aramid honeycomb (Nomex), PVC foam,
polymethacrylimide foam (Rohacell), phenolic coated Kraft paper
honeycomb, aluminium honeycomb (various foil grades 2024, 3003, 5052,
5056)

Manufacturing of Composites

Manufacturing of Composites
Goals of the composite fabrication process:
To achieve a consistent product by controlling fibre thickness,
fibre volume fraction, fibre directions
To minimise presence of voids
To reduce internal residual stresses
To process in a cost effective manner
Manufacturing process planning involves optimum selection of :
Composite material and its configuration
Fabrication process
Tooling

Composite Fabrication Processes

Processes for incorporating reinforcements into a polymer matrix
can be divided into two categories:
1. The continuous and discontinuous fibres and matrix are
processed directly into the finished structure, e.g., filament
winding and pultrusion
2. The reinforcements are incorporated into the matrix to
prepare ready-to-mould sheets that can be stored and later
processed to form laminated structures, e.g., autoclave
moulding and compression moulding. Ready- to-mould fibre
reinforced polymer sheets are available in two basic forms,
prepregs and sheet moulding compounds (SMC)

Advantages of Hand Lay-up Process

Flexibility of design
Large, complex components can be produced
Minimum equipment investment required
Low tooling cost
Minimal start-up and lead-time and cost
Design changes easily effected
Moulded-in inserts & structural reinforcements possible
Sandwich construction possible
Standard prototyping and pre-production method
Semi-skilled workers, minimal training

Disadvantages of Hand Lay-up Process

Labour intensive process

Only one tooled (moulded) surface obtained
Quality of product related to skill of operator
Low production volume process
Longer curing time required
Waste factor can be high

Bag Moulding Processes

Moulding methods used include vacuum bag, pressure bag, oven and
autoclave moulding
Bags are thin, flexible membranes of nylon or polyvinyl alcohol or silicone
rubber sheets that separate the laid up construction from atmospheric
pressure during the composite curing process
Consolidation and densification of the lay-up is achieved by the pressure
differential across the bag contents
Consolidation is achieved when the separate plies of prepreg are bonded
together
Densification results in reduction of voids and removal of excess resin
Other advantages of bag moulding methods during cure include prevention
of blistering in the composites, better control of pressure and heat
application and control of the fibre/resin ratio

Vacuum Bag and Pressure Bag Moulding

Vacuum bag moulding is least limited as to size of part

Wet lay-up vacuum bag moulded composites can be room temperature
cured or thermally cured to produce improved properties
Thermal cures are best attained in air-circulating ovens or autoclaves, but
can also be done by infrared heating
Pressure bag moulding methods are efficient for curing of deeply
contoured structures and shallow composites
Examples of deeply contoured composites are sonar domes, radomes and
antenna housings. Heavy moulds are built for the high temperatures and
pressures
Shallow contoured composite items such as door panels and aircraft
fairings may be made in modified compression presses
Pressure bag and autoclave moulding processes commonly attain
177 deg C (350 F) temperature and 1379 kPa pressure (200 psi)

Autoclave Moulding

An autoclave system comprises of a cylindrical pressure vessel equipped

with subsystems for heating the moulds with the lay-ups, for circulating the
hot gases (nitrogen / air), for pressurisation of the gases, for applying a
vacuum on the bagged parts, for cooling the autoclave shell, for controlling
the operating parameters and for loading the moulds into the autoclave
The autoclave system allows a complex chemical reaction to occur inside
the pressure vessel per a cure cycle that specifies a time, temperature and
pressure profile in order to process a variety of materials
Development of materials and processes has led to autoclaves that operate
over a wide range of 120-760 deg C and 275-69,000 kPa
Heating systems available include electric for small, superheated steam for
medium temp and indirect gas for high temp autoclaves
Materials processed in autoclaves include metal bonding adhesives,
reinforced epoxy laminates, thermoplastic laminates and metal ceramic
and carbon matrix materials

Curing

Curing is the irreversible change in the physical properties of a

thermosetting resin brought about by a chemical reaction
Cure may be achieved by the addition of curing or cross linking agents,
with or without the addition of heat and pressure.
Curing can also be accomplished by using ultraviolet radiation or electron
beams for specific applications
The relationship between resin viscosity and the cure cycle is used to
obtain maximum performance in a composite structure. The viscosity can
vary with a change in heat-up rate and temperature.
The material supplier can provide information on specific applications,
processing parameters, material properties, test data and fabrication
methodology for the material.
Using this information, a cure cycle is defined for a specific composite part
Uniform temperature in the lay-up during curing is critical. Non-uniformity
can lead to residual stresses, trapped volatiles and variation in properties
Proper vacuum and autoclave pressure control as per the cure cycle can
help to control laminate porosity

Resin Transfer Moulding

Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) is a closed mould liquid moulding

process in which matched male and female moulds, preplaced with fibre
preforms, are clamped to form composite components
Preform is dry reinforcement material which has been cut and/or shaped
into a piece that has the required size and contours
After the mould is closed and shut, resin mix is transferred into the cavity
through injection ports at a relatively low pressure of <690 kPa. Resin
flows through the preform expelling air in the cavity through vents and
wetting out or impregnating the reinforcement
Cure cycle is dependent on part thickness, type of resin system and
temperature of mould and resin. The part cures in the heated mould and is
removed when sufficient green strength is attained for handling.
Postcure may be done to complete the reaction and achieve desired
mechanical properties
Optimum range for the low viscosity premixed resin is 200-300 cps and
resins commonly used are polyester, vinyl ester and epoxy

Advantages of RTM

Surface quality: Surface definition is superior to lay-up. All surfaces attain

better finish with mould matched tools
Close tolerances: Parts can be made with better repeat- ability than with
lay-up
Design tailorability: Combination of reinforcements can be used to meet
specific properties
Fast cycles: Production cycles are much faster than with lay-up
Filler: Fillers can be used to reduce cost, improve fire, smoke performance,
surface appearance and crack resistance
Gel coat: Mould surfaces can be coated to improve part surfaces
Good properties: Mechanical properties of moulded parts are comparable
with other composite fabrication processes
Good mouldability: Large and complex shapes can be made efficiently and
inexpensively
Inserts: Ribs, bosses, cores, inserts and special reinforcements can be
added easily
Labour saving: The skill level of the operator is less critical

Advantages/Disadvantages of RTM
ADVANTAGES, cont:

Low tooling cost: Clamping pressure is low compared to other closed

mould operations. Resin injection done at 2-10 bar pressure
Low volatile emissions: Volatile emissions are low since RTM is a closed
mould process
DISADVANTAGES:

Mould design: Mould design is critical and requires good tools or superior
skill
Mould filling: Control of flow pattern or resin uniformity is difficult. Radii
and edges tend to be resin rich
Properties are equivalent to those with matched-die moulding but not as
good as with vacuum bagging, filament winding or pultrusion
Reinforcement movement during resin injection is sometimes a problem

Variant of RTM - Vacuum Infusion/VARTM

Vacuum Infusion/Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM)
Initially developed as alternative to open-mould hand lay-up and spray-up
techniques. Fibre reinforcements and core materials are laid-up dry in a onesided mould and vacuum bagged. Liquid resin is introduced through one or
more ports by a series of designed-in channels that facilitate fibre wet-out
VARTM cure requires neither high heat nor high pressure. Low cost tooling
makes it possible to inexpensively produce large, complex parts in one shot
Recent developments include VARTM with one stiff mould half and a semi
rigid glass fibre/polyester second mould half in which 1 bar pressure is
applied on inlet during injection for improved part quality
Developments in technology have shown it can be alternative to prepreg
compression moulding and prepreg vacuum bagging
Process is suitable for intermediate number of parts (1000/year), small and
large parts, low and high performance parts
Commonly used in marine, transportation and infrastructure markets

Filament Winding
Filament Winding is a process in which a filamentary yarn or tow is first
wetted by a resin and then uniformly and regularly wound about a rotating
mandrel. The finished pattern is cured and the mandrel removed. Filament
winding can be classified as Helical or Polar winding.
Helical winding: Fibre is fed from a horizontally moving delivery head to a
rotating mandrel. The angle of the roving band with respect to the mandrel
axis is called the wind angle. By adjusting the carriage speed and the
mandrel rotating speed, any wind angle between near 0 deg and near 90
deg (Hoop winding) can be obtained. The properties of the part depend
strongly on the wind angle. Typical fibre volume fraction is 55-60% in
helical winding and 60-70% in hoop winding
Helical winding is suitable for long slender parts like pressure pipe and
launch tubes where wind angles of 20 to 90 deg are used. Most pipe is
wound at 54.7 deg, which assumes a 2:1 hoop to longitudinal stress
(cylindrical closed pressure vessel). Since the carriage moves backward
and forward, fibre bands criss-cross at plus and minus the wind angle and
create a weaving or interlocking effect

Filament Winding, cont:

Polar winding: The carriage rotates about the longitudinal axis of a stationary
mandrel. After each rotation of the carriage, the mandrel is indexed to
advance by one fibre bandwidth. Thus the fibre bands lie adjacent to each
other and there are no fibre crossovers
The fibre passes tangentially to the polar opening at one end of the
chamber, reverses direction and passes tangentially to the opposite side of
the polar opening at the other end. Since the fibre is wound in a plane
intersecting the mandrel ends, the polar wind angle is small and typically
5-15 deg
Polar winding is a simple, rapid technique for short, stubby items with a
length : diameter ratio of <2
Polar wound structures often combine polar and hoop wraps. This
provides circumferential reinforcement and also helps to compact wet
winding at intermediate fabrication points
Filament winding can be done on mechanical or CNC machines. The
technique can vary winding tension, reinforcement material, wind angle or
resin content in each layer until the desired thickness and resin content of
the composite is achieved.

Filament Winding, cont:

Reinforcement Fibres used include glass, carbon and aramid

Resins used include epoxy, vinyl ester, polyester, phenolic, polyimide and
bismaleimide. Thermoplastics are used in specific applications
Wet and Dry Filament Winding: In Wet Winding, the fibres are drawn
through a bath containing epoxy resin, curing agent and additives. The
fibres are passed through an orifice to remove excess resin and then wound
onto a mandrel. Curing is done in an oven or autoclave, if required and the
mandrel removed
Dry, Prepreg or Tape Winding is a blend of filament winding and prepreg
technology. The prepreg roving, with the resin in a tacky, semi-solid
condition is obtained from a supplier and wound onto the mandrel and
cured by the manufacturer. Dry winding allows better control of the fibre :
resin ratio and also reduces exposure of workers to toxic curing agents or
additives
Mandrels: The mandrel is the geometric basis of the part, supports it
during winding and cure and can be permanent, removable and reusable.
Permanent Metal mandrels for pressure vessels can be of aluminium,
stainless steel, Inconel, titanium. Net Metal mandrels of aluminium can be
disassembled, removed and reused. Single use mandrels can be of plaster,
salt paste or ultrafine sand with PVA as a binder.

Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a continuous manufacturing process used to produce high-fibrecontent composite shapes and is ideal for high throughput of constant cross
section products. Primary reinforcement and strength are in the
longitudinal direction.
More than 90% of all pultruded products are of E-glass roving reinforced
polyester. Pultruded products have higher mechanical properties than other
forms of plastic processing, thus preferred
Pultrusion is similar to extrusion except that the raw materials are pulled
instead of pushed through the die. Almost any length of solid, open-sided
or hollow shapes can be produced
Accurate resin content can be maintained because of the fixed cross section
of the die, excess resin is squeezed out
Pultrusion machine consists of 6 stages: Material Feed, Resin
Impregnation, Preforming, Forming & Curing, Clamping & Pulling and
Cut-off
Curing: The critical step of curing is a continuous polymerisation process
that takes place within the die and tunnel oven which can range in length
from 30-155 cm. Dies are heated electrically or with hot oil. The
reinforced resin gels in the die and is fully cured in the free state, as it
moves through the oven.
Applications include structural building shapes, automobile & aircraft
parts, electrical industry tools and sporting goods

Machining of Composites

Quality Assurance

Nondestructive Inspection

Material Qualification

Types of Defects (Flaws)

Nondestructive Testing Techniques for Evaluation

of Quality of Composite Parts
A number of non-destructive inspection techniques are
available for checking manufacturing and service related
defects. The following inspection methods are available:

Visual inspection
Tap test
Ultrasonic test
Radiography
Thermography
Acoustic Emission

Visual Inspection

Tap Test
Quality of a thin composite material laminate can be assessed by
tapping a succession of locations with a coin or a tapping hammer
The sounds of good and bad areas are qualitatively different to the
human ear, with a clear ring at good positions and a dull sound in poor
areas
The test method is sensitive to laminar type flaws, such as
delaminations or disbonds and depends on the different acoustic
resonance of the loose upper layer compared to the surrounding
material
The method does not require sophisticated or expensive equipment but
depends on subjective interpretation and is not suitable for thick
laminates
The technique has been automated with a mechanical tapper and
instrumentation to interpret the signals, which gives the advantage of
improved repeatability in terms of tap impact and location

Ultrasonic Inspection

Radiographic (X-ray) Inspection

Acoustic Emission
Acoustic emission testing involves the detection of elastic energy that
is released by materials when they undergo deformation under load
The detected signals are frequently in the ultrasonic rather than audible
region
The method is capable of detecting matrix cracking, delamination and
fibre breakage
The technique has been used in the proof testing of fibreglass pressure
vessels and beams and also to monitor and characterize damage
growth mechanisms in composites under cyclic loading

Dye Penetrant
The technique can be used to detect surface breaking openings such as
cracks, delaminations, exposed porosity or bondline defects in
composites
Liquid penetrants rely on capillary action to enter the defects and are
detected by inspection of the component under ultraviolet light

Thermography
Thermography involves the contour mapping of regions of equal
temperature on the surface, by an infrared camera, to investigate the
state of material of a component into which thermal energy is
introduced, typically by a radiant heat source
Defects such as voids, delaminations, fibre orientation, disbonds in
adhesive joints cause a variation in local thermal pattern and can be
detected
The method is noncontacting and can be used during testing or at high
temperatures
Thermography is attractive as a rapid means of inspecting large areas
of a structure
The technique has been used for aerospace laminates of carbon epoxy
as well as for marine applications of fibreglass upto 8 cm thick

Summary of Nondestructive Inspection Capabilities

Effects of Defects in Fibre Reinforced Composite

Materials and Potential Effects on Structural
Performance
Delamination: Catastrophic failure due to loss of
interlaminar shear strength. Typical acceptance criteria
require the detection of delaminations with a linear
dimension larger than 6.4 mm (0.25 in.)
Impact Damage: Loss of compressive strength under static
load
Ply gap: Strength degradation depends on stacking order
and location. For (0, 45, 90, -45) laminate, strength is
reduced 9% due to gaps in 0 deg ply and 17% due to gaps
in 90 deg ply

Effects of Defects in Fibre Reinforced Composite

Materials and Potential Effects on Structural
Performance, cont:
Ply Waviness: For 0 deg ply waviness in (0, 45, 90, -45)
laminate, static strength reduction is 10% for slight
waviness and 25% for extreme waviness. Fatigue life is
reduced at least by a factor of 10
Porosity: Degrades matrix dominated properties. 1%
porosity reduces strength by 5% and fatigue life by 50%
Surface Notches: Static strength reduction of upto 50%.
Strength reduction is small for notch sizes expected in
service
Thermal Over-exposure: Embrittlement and reduction of
toughness up to complete loss of structural integrity