Chapter VII: Ocean Circulation

Essentials of Oceanography, Thurman and Trujillo

Wind-driven surface currents

Ocean Circulation Ani

mation

Figure 7-4

Measuring surface currents

Direct methods
Float meters
(lagrangian: float with
current)
Intentional
Inadvertent
Propeller meters
(eularian: stay in one
place)

Indirect methods
Pressure gradients
Satellites
Doppler flow meters
Figure 7B

Ocean currents
Surface currents
Affect surface water within and above the
pycnocline (10% of ocean waterI think it is
more like 25% of ocean water)
Driven by major wind belts of the world

Deep currents
Affect deep water below pycnocline (90% of
ocean waterI think it is more like 75%)
Driven by density differences
Larger and slower than surface currents

NO CLEAR CUT DELINEATION

Deep water masses and currents

Deep water masses:
Form in subpolar regions at the surface
Are created when high density surface water
sinks
Factors affecting density of surface water:
Temperature (most important factor)
Salinity

Deep currents which transport deep waters are

also known as thermohaline circulation

Characteristics of deep waters are

determined AT THE SURFACE

Deep ocean characteristics

Conditions of the deep ocean:
Cold
Still
Dark
Essentially no productivity
Sparse life
Extremely high pressure

Identification of deep water masses

Deep water masses
are identified by
measuring
temperature (T) and
salinity (S), from
which density can be
determined
T-S diagram
Characteristics set at
surface

Figure 7-24

Atlantic Ocean subsurface water masses

Figure 7-25

Conveyer-belt circulation: Deep Currents

Figure 7-27

Understanding the formation of SURFACE

currents
4 Primary things that need to be understood
- Ekman transport (and spiral)
- The idea of Convergence
- Conservation of Vorticity
- Geostrophic Balance

What drove Deep Currents?

Ekman spiral: Wind Driven ()

Ekman spiral
describes the speed
and direction of flow
of surface waters at
various depths
Factors:
Wind Pushes Water
through Wind Stress ()
Coriolis effect pushes
water to right(left)

Due to shear, water

velocity spins to the
right(left) with depth.
Figure 7-6

Ekman transport
Ekman transport is the
overall water movement due
to Ekman spiral
Ideal transport is 90 from the
wind
Transport direction depends
on the hemisphere
Ekman transport is
proportional to the speed of
the wind. Higher wind,
higher transport!

Figure 7-6

More Realistic Climatological (average) Winds

Understanding the formation of currents

4 Primary things that need to be understood
- Ekman transport (and spiral)
- The idea of Convergence
- Conservation of Vorticity
- Geostrophic Balance

Convergence/Divergence
This idea is nothing more then the piling up or moving of
water away from a region.
Conservation of VOLUME: (du/dx+dv/dy+dw/dz=0)
Rearranging... du/dx + dv/dy = -dw/dz
If water comes into the box (du/dx + dv/dy)>0 there is a
velocity out of the box: dw/dz < 0 DOWNWARD
So lets go back to Ekmanand see where water is piled
up and where it is emptied.

Convergence (Divergence) across a mid ocean gyre

Understanding the formation of currents

4 Primary things that need to be understood
- Ekman transport (and spiral)
- The idea of Convergence
- Conservation of Vorticity
- Geostrophic Balance

Vorticity (I think the 3rd time weve talked about it)

Vorticity is analagous to angular momentum.
Vorticity is a conserved quantity (Conservation of Vorticity)
When we talked about Coriolis we introduced the idea of Planetary
Vorticity (f). Every object on earth has a vorticity given to it by the
rotation of the earth (except an object on the equator). This vorticity is
dependent on latitude.
Each object on earth can have Relative Vorticity as well. An ice skater who
is spinning has Relative Vorticity. A skater who becomes more skinny spins
faster (greater relative vorticity). But remember that water is
incompressible. So if a water column becomes skinny it MUST become
taller at the same time!

TOTAL VORTICITY is CONSERVED BY FLUIDS.

Planetary (f) + Relative ()
H

= Constant

H is the (tallness, or depth of water column)

An example of
conservation of vorticity
when H stays constant
North Pole (High planetary Vorticity f)

Right Hand Rule: Curl your fingers

on your right hand (northern
hemisphere) in the direction of spin.
If you thumb points upward the
vorticity is positive. If you thumb
points downward, vorticity is
negative.

Off the equator (to the north) Planetary Vorticity

(f) > 0. Since (f + )=0, must be < 0. The water
begins to spin.
A parcel of water moves off the equator its
vorticity on the equator (f+ )=0.
Equator (Zero planetary Vorticity f)

An example of
conservation of vorticity
when H doesnt stay
constant
A parcel of water moves east
(constant latitude) in N.Hemis.

Right Hand Rule: Curl your fingers on your

right hand (northern hemisphere) in the
direction of spin. If you thumb points upward
the vorticity is positive. If you thumb points
downward, vorticity is negative.

As the parcel hits the bump, H decreases. We

know that (f + )/H=Constant. So if H decreases,
(f + ) must decrease. If f decreases, the parcel
moves equatorward. If decreases the parcel
spins clockwise.
Ocean Surface

Ocean bottom

What happens when the

parcel leaves the bump?

Bump in bottom

An example of
conservation of vorticity
when H doesnt stay
constant
A parcel of water moves east
(constant latitude) in N.Hemis.

Right Hand Rule: Curl your fingers on your

right hand (northern hemisphere) in the
direction of spin. If you thumb points upward
the vorticity is positive. If you thumb points
downward, vorticity is negative.

As the parcel hits the bump, H decreases. We

know that (f + )/H=Constant. So if H decreases,
(f + ) must decrease. If f decreases, the parcel
moves equatorward. If decreases the parcel
spins clockwise. Or a combination.
Ocean Surface

Ocean bottom

Bump in bottom

An example of
conservation of vorticity
when H doesnt stay
constant

Right Hand Rule: Curl your fingers on your

right hand (northern hemisphere) in the
direction of spin. If you thumb points upward
the vorticity is positive. If you thumb points
downward, vorticity is negative.

As the parcel hits the bump, H decreases. We

know that (f + )/H=Constant. So if H decreases,
(f + ) must decrease. If f decreases, the parcel
A parcel of water moves east
moves equatorward. If decreases the parcel
(constant latitude) in N.Hemis.
spins clockwise. Or a combination.
North
Parcel Moves Equatorward

From ABOVE
H
Bump in bottom
South

Understanding the formation of currents

4 Primary things that need to be understood
- Ekman transport (and spiral)
- The idea of Convergence
- Conservation of Vorticity
- Geostrophic Balance

Geostrophic Balance
Most large currents are in
Geostrophic balance.
Which terms from our
momentum equation?
All currents are pushed to
the right(left).
This piles water up on the
right(left).
This creates a pressure
force back towards the
current.
Eventually a balance is
reached. Pressure
BALANCES Coriolis!

Coriolis pushes water to

right(left). Piles up water.
current
Sealevel
Pressure force

current
pressure

coriolis

Geostrophic Balance
Geostrophic flow
causes a hill to form in
subtropical gyres
Example in the book of
the balance of coriolis
and pressure force
(gravity).
Current is
Perpendicular to slope.
Current is along
constant height
Figure 7-7

Understanding the formation of currents

Weve been introduced to the 4 Primary things
that need to be understood. Lets put them all
together to understand what drives our ocean
currents!
- Ekman transport (and spiral)
- The idea of Convergence
- Conservation of Vorticity
- Geostrophic Balance

More Realistic Climatological (average) Winds

Ekman transport creates convergence and
divergence of upper waters.

Divergence
Convergence
Divergence
Convergence
Divergence

Upwelling and Downwelling across a mid ocean

gyre due to Ekman Transport
Convergence causes downwelling! Divergence
causes upwelling!

With DOWNWELLING, the vertical

velocity is downward. This pushes on the
column of water, making it shorter (and
fatter). What happens when a column of
water gets short and fat (Vorticity must be
conserved).
Ocean Surface

A parcel of water moves into an

area of downwelling. It
becomes shorter (and fatter).

f/H must be conserved!

Ekman Convergence

Mixed Layer

Ocean bottom

We know that (f + )/H= Constant. So if H

decreases, (f + ) must decrease. I gave
examples before that either f or could
change. But in this process; it is f that
decreases. f can only decrease by the parcel
moving equatorward.

More Realistic Climatological (average) Winds

Ekman transport creates convergence and
divergence of upper waters.

Divergence
Convergence
Divergence
Convergence
Divergence

More Realistic Climatological (average) Winds

Ekman transport creates convergence and
divergence of upper waters.

Poleward flow
45o N
15o N
15o S
45o S

Equatorward flow
Complicated flow
Equatorward flow
Poleward flow

Geostrophic Balance
Ekman transport has caused a
hill to form in the sea surface
when convergence occurs
(subtropical gyre)
Vorticity balance explains
equatorward flow (from gyre
center to the east)
Geostropic current is along
constant height (WARM water to
right in N Hemis)
Current must return back to the
north (conservation of mass)
Western Boundary Current is
that return. Very strong very

intense

Figure 7-7

Sea Surface Height and Mean Geostrophic Ocean Circulation

Current gyres
Gyres are large circular-moving loops of water
Subtropical gyres
Five main gyres (one in each ocean basin):
North

Pacific, South Pacific, North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Indian

Generally 4 currents in each gyre

Centered at about 30 north or south latitude (I think more like
25o)

Subpolar gyres
Smaller and fewer than subtropical gyres
Generally 2 currents in each gyre
Centered at about 60 north or south latitude
Rotate in the opposite direction of adjoining subtropical gyres

Sea Surface Height and Mean Geostrophic Ocean Circulation

L-Subpolar Gyre

H-Subtropical
Gyre

H-Subtropical
Gyre

H-Subtropical
Gyre

L-Subpolar Gyre

H-Subtropical
Gyre

HSubtropical
Gyre

HK

Guam

HA

P37 mean dyht and temperature field

Sea Surface Height

Temperature Field

Salinity Field

SF

Western intensification of subtropical gyres

The western boundary currents of all
subtropical gyres are:
Fast
Narrow
Deep

Western boundary currents are also warm

Western Boundary Currents and Vorticity
ConservationMust conserve.

Back to our example of

conservation of vorticity
when H stays constant
Remember this example?
North Pole (High planetary Vorticity f)

Right Hand Rule: Curl your fingers on

your right hand (northern hemisphere) in
the direction of spin. If you thumb points
upward the vorticity is positive. If you
thumb points downward, vorticity is
negative.

As the western boundary current

returns north, this should happen,
but it does not. Why?

Off the equator (to the north) Planetary Vorticity

(f) > 0. Since (f + )=0, must be < 0. The
water begins to spin.
A parcel of water moves off the equator its
vorticity on the equator (f+ )=0.
Equator (Zero planetary Vorticity f)

Back to our example of

conservation of vorticity
when H stays constant

As the water moves up the coast in the

VERY Narrow WBC, it rubs against the
coast. It removes vorticity through friction.
The WBC MUST be narrow, it must get
close to the coast.

North Pole (High planetary Vorticity f)

Parcel wants to spin

But cant due to friction

Conservation of Vorticity is valid as an

idea. But once an outside force like friction
is applied, conservation is not going to
happen.

Off the equator (to the north) Planetary Vorticity

(f) > 0. Since (f + )=0, must be < 0. The
water begins to spin.
A parcel of water moves off the equator its
vorticity on the equator (f+ )=0.

Equator (Zero planetary Vorticity f)

Wind-driven surface currents

Figure 7-4

Upwelling and downwelling

Vertical movement of water ()
Upwelling = movement of deep water to surface
Hoists cold, nutrient-rich water to surface
Produces high productivities and abundant marine life

Downwelling = movement of surface water down

Moves warm, nutrient-depleted surface water down
Not associated with high productivities or abundant
marine life

Coastal upwelling and downwelling

Ekman transport moves surface water away
from shore, producing upwelling
Ekman transport moves surface water
towards shore, producing downwelling

Figure 7-11

Other types of upwelling

Equatorial
upwelling
Offshore wind
Sea floor
obstruction
Sharp bend in
coastal geometry

Figure 7-9

Equatorial upwelling

Other examples of upwelling (Which one looks like San Diego?)

Antarctic surface circulation

Figure 7-13

Ocean surface currents

What Currents do you need to
know?

The Gulf Stream and sea surface

temperatures
The Gulf Stream is a
warm, western
intensified current
Meanders as it
moves into the North
Atlantic
Creates warm and
cold core rings
Rings move west.
Argue as given in
book for westward
intensification.

Figure 7-16

Flows are typically unstable; they meander

Currents and climate

Warm current
warms air
high water vapor
humid coastal
climate
Cool current
cools air low
water vapor
dry coastal
climate

Figure 7-8a

El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

El Nio = warm surface current in
equatorial eastern Pacific that occurs
periodically around Christmastime
Southern Oscillation = change in
atmospheric pressure over Pacific Ocean
accompanying El Nio
ENSO describes a combined oceanicatmospheric disturbance

Average conditions in the Pacific Ocean

El Nino/La Nina Animation

Figure 7-18a

El Nio conditions (ENSO warm phase)

Figure 7-18b

La Nia conditions (ENSO cool phase;

opposite of El Nio)

Figure 7-18c

The 1997-98 El Nio

Sea surface
temperature anomaly
map shows warming
during severe 1997-98
El Nio
Internet site for El Ni
o visualizations
Current state of the tr
opical Pacific

Figure 7-19a

El Nio recurrence interval

Typical recurrence interval for El Nios = 312 years
Pacific has alternated between El Nio and
La Nia events since 1950

Figure 7-20

Effects of severe El Nios

Figure 7-21

La Nina

El Nino

End of Chapter VII

Essentials of Oceanography, Thurman and Trujillo

Measuring currents through satellite

Red: High sea levelHigh sea level is warmer water (water expands when
warm)In N Hemisphere warm water is on the right. ONLY measures
anomaly, Must add GEOID.

Equatorial Currents are complicatedbut they are still driven

EXACTLY THE SAME WAY as the gyres. The currents are complicated
because the winds are complicated and the equator is present (Why would
the equator be important?) f is nearly zero near the equator so swashing
and stretching of water columns isnt the driving force. The process is
just ekman convergence/divergence and pressure forces.

Topex/Poseidon dynamic topography after GEOID has been added

Ocean surface currents

Figure 7-14

North Atlantic Ocean circulation

Sverdrup: measure of flow rate (length 3/time) 1 Sv = 106 m3/s

Figure 7-15

Pacific Ocean surface currents

Figure 7-17

Indian Ocean surface currents

Northeast monsoon

Figure 7-23

Southwest monsoon