Introduction to Explosives

Chemical explosives

is a compound or mixture which is capable of

undergoing extremely rapid decomposition.
An explosion can be broken down into four phases
Release of gas
Intense heat
Extreme pressure, and
The explosion

Chemical explosives
When the explosive is detonated,

gas is released,
temperature of the gas increases,
pressure also increases (Charles law).
move and break the rock.

How to compare explosives

Strength
Detonating velocity
Fume class
Water resistance
Density
Physical characteristics
Storage
Freezing

Detonation pressure
Energy
Sensitivity
Sensitiveness
Flammability

How to compare explosives

Strength

: % of active material

Velocity

of Detonating (VOD): is the velocity at

which the detonation wave moves through the
explosive (ft/s or m/s)

Fume

class : the amount of toxic fumes which

determine its safety to be used in particular situation
such as underground operations.

How to compare explosives

Detonation pressure : is the pressure behind the detonation

front.
Energy
Sensitivity : the minimum energy/pressure needed for
detonation.
Sensitiveness: measure of explosion wave spreading from
one stick to another.
Flammability : easiness to ignite by flame or heat

How to compare explosives

Water resistance : is the ability to resist contamination or a

reduction in strength when exposed to water. Sometimes
determined by the length of time it can be submerged in water
and still perform as designed.

Density : is the explosive wt per given volume. A cartridge of 90

sticks per 50-lb case is denser than a cartridge of 110 sticks per
50-lb case. Aid in blast design.

How to compare explosives

Physical characteristics: commercial explosives can take three

basic forms: granular, gelatin, and slurry. The form depends on
the formula, and the choice of form depends on the usage
required. The package for the same explosive product may also
vary according to usage. For example, a slurry can be pumped
into a borehole with no container, or it can be packaged in
polyethylene bags to permit handling in smaller amounts.

How to compare explosives

Storage: how explosive can be stored without affecting its safety, reliability, and
performance. Early nitroglycerin (NG) dynamites were extremely poor for storing due
to separation of NG from the other components and creates an extremely hazardous
condition.
Freezing : important for safety and performance especially in cold climate. Anitfreezing
additives may be used.

Drills and drilling

The drilling system consists of the drill: the drill steel, or rod; and
the bit. The bit penetrates the rock by the force it imposes on the
rock. Bits are designed for percussion, rotary drilling, or both.
Hand held drills
External percussion drills
Down-the-hole drills
Rotary drills

Rock Shear strength

Rock
Sandstone

Condition

Shear
strength,
lb/in2

Soft
Medium
Hard gray
Fine-grained brown
Medium-grained friable gray

1500
3050
4720
3600
2840

Rock Shear strength

Rock
Limestone

Siltstone
Dolomite
quartzite

Condition
Hard flossiliferrous
Hard gray
Medium crystalline

Shear
strength,
lb/in2
4160
6520
7600
3000
12700
10600

Drill Selection
Size of project : drill type and size
Hole diameter : drill type and bit size
Depth of cut : long or short
Rock hardness: percussion (4-6.5) or rotary (23.5) on Mohs scale
Capital : machine price
Cost : cost per foot of borehole need
specialized operator

Firing systems

Blasting Cap

Detonating systems

Blasting Caps

Blasting Cap : are small cylindrical tubes that

detonate cap-sensitive explosives. They are
usually made of copper or aluminum and
contains an explosive.

There are three types of blasting caps:

Common caps
Millisecond delays (MS delays)
Standard delays

Common Blasting Caps

Detonated by a fuse
Now they are the least common
Copper or aluminum Cylinder
38 mm long X 6 mm dia, closed at one end.
Contains two types of charges : igniting charge and
the base charge.
A safety fuse is inserted into the open end of the cap
to ensure that the flame reaches the igniting charge
completely. To prevent water and contaminants from
entering the cap and inhibiting detonation.

Common Blasting Caps

When the fuse is ignited, the powder core burns,

acting as a vehicle through which the fire is
transmitted to the igniting charge end of the cap.

The burning fuse spits a flame resembling a jet

flame called as ignition spit.

When the flame travels to the cap, it ignites the

ignition charge, which detonates the base charge,
which in turn detonates the explosive charge that is
being primed with the cap.

Common Blasting Caps

Base charge

Fuse

Ignition
charge

Electric Blasting Caps

More controllable method

Contains charges like the common cap, but instead of safety fuse
the cap contains two wires that meet at a bridge wire.
when electric current is applied, the bridge wire burns, igniting
the charge in the cap.
Enables the blaster

to choose the suitable time of detonation

to shoot more holes than the safety fuse method

Delay blasting caps

Delay Blasting Caps

Are caps that are detonated by electricity in various time-delay

intervals.
Two types : standard and millisecond (MS).
Advantages of (MS) are:

Reduce ground vibration

Improve fragmentation
Produce less flyrock
Reduce costs
Reduce overbreak

Delay Blasting
Flyrock

1st row

Free face

Flyrock, excessive movement of blasted rock in the

air, caused by not using delay blasting. Second row
cannot move toward face and therefore must
either fly or remain in place.

Delay Blasting

Delay blasting can help reduce flyrock by

permitting the rock to move in the direction
desired rather than moving haphazardly through
the air.

Blasting without delays requires more drilling

and explosive to break the rock because the rock
tends to resist breakage and lack of a sufficient
number of free faces.
Delay blasting reduces overbreak.

Delay Blasting
Free face

Blasting Circuits
Three types of circuits
Single-series
Straight parallel

Parallel-series

Theory of Breakage
Purpose of blasting
One solid piece smaller pieces
(fragmentation) to be moved or excavated
(movement).
Underground blasting, for example, requires
greater fragmentation than surface blasting
because of the size of the equipment that can be
used and the difficulty of access.
Get the desired results with a minimum cost

Theory of Breakage
Involves two basic processes:
Radial cracking
Flexural rupture
Rock is stronger in compression than in tension.
Therefore, the easiest way to break rock is to
subject it to a tensile stress greater than its
ultimate strength in tension.
Rocks are heterogeneous (contain different types
of rocks). They differ in their density.

Theory of Breakage

Free face

Borehole

Compression
waves

Radial cracking

Theory of Breakage
The distance from the borehole to the free
face is the burden.
The denser the rock the faster the waves
Proper fragmentation when enough to
travel to the face and back overcoming the
tensile strength of the rock.
Along the face the outermost edge is
stretched in tension which causes cracks.

Flexural Rupture
The second process in breaking rock by
bending the rock to the point where the
outside edge, the side in tension, breaks.
Caused by the rapid expansion of gases in
borehole.
Analogous to the bending and breaking of a
beam.
Movement or displacement are required in
addition to cracking.

Flexural Rupture
After detonation the redial cracks expands
and the gas starts to the movement by
putting a CS against the borehole wall
causing its bending.
The deeper the hole, the greater the burden
and borehole spacing.
M = wl2/8 where w is the load (burden), l is
the borehole length.

Stemming
Is non-explosive material that is placed in the borehole
between the top of the explosive column and the collar of
the hole.
Sand, drill fines, or gravel
Confine and delay the escape of expansive gases and
increases the explosives efficiency (reduces the explosive
used).
Reduce the flyrocks, increase ground vibration, and air
blast
Rifling : in case of impropoer stemming, blowing of the
stemming material.

Angle of Breakage
Is the measured angle at which a homogeneous material
can be expected to break from the explosive charge to the
free face.

Free face

135
90

Blast Design
Is the safe and economic way to do blasting
Factors affecting blasting design
Geological factors (out of blasters control)
Controllable factors
Borehole dia.
Burden
Spacing
Stemming
Design of the delay firing system.

Hole Diameter
Depends on
The availability of the equipment
The depth of the cut
The distance of the nearest structure.
Max dia. Depends on the hole depth L (ft) = 2D (in)
There are four methods to decrease the explosives amount:
Use delay firing
Shorten the depth of the cut
Decrease the hole dia
Use decking technique

Burden & spacing

determination
Burden is the distance from the blast hole to the nearest
perpendicular free face.
Spacing

Burden

Free face

Burden & spacing

determination
Andersen Formula
B= (dL)0.5
B : burden, ft
d : borehole dia, in
L : borehole Length, ft

Langefors Formula

V= (db/33) [Ps/cf(E/V)]0.5

V : burden, m
db : dia of drill bit, mm
P : degree of packing = 1-1.6 kg/dm3
s : wt strength of explosives (1.3 for gelatin)
c : rock constant, generally 0.45
f : 1 degree of fraction, for straight hole = 1
E/V = ratio of spacing to burden

Spacing determination
Spacing is the distance between blast holes fired in the same
row
It is necessary to complete burden calculations before
determining the spacing.
S= (BL)0.5
B : burden, ft
L : borehole Length, ft

Controlled Blasting
To control overbreak and to aid the stability of the
remaining rock formation.
There are 4 methods
Line drilling (unloaded), Fig.8-2
Cushion blasting
Smooth-wall blasting
Presplitting

Controlled Blasting Line drilling

Provides a plane of weakness to which the rock can break.
Helps to reflect shock waves,
Reduces the shattering effect of the rock outside the
perimeter.
Do not exceed 3 in in dia and are spaced one to four
diameters apart (due to cost).
Are not loaded
Requires more drilling more than the other controlled
blasting methods.
Is not very effective in non-homogeneous formations

Controlled Blasting Line drilling

Free
face

Unloaded
line drill
holes

Cushion Blasting
Requires a single row of holes ( 2 to 3.5 in) in dia.
Permits a reduction in the No. of holes required by line-drilling
Unlike line-drilling holes, the cushion holes are loaded with light
charges.
Holes are fully stemmed between charges, allowing no air gap, and
are fired after the production shot has been excavated.
The stemming acts as a cushion to protect the finished wall from the
shock waves. The larger the borehole, the greater the cushion.
Not suitable for underground - tough stemming requirements.
Drawbacks: (1) requires removal of excavated material before firing
(costly due to production delay no excavation for entire area at
once). (2) Sometimes the production shot can break back to the
cushion holes, creating redrilling problems and causing loading
changes.

Pre-splitting
Creates a plane of shear in solid rows along the desired
excavation before the production blast.
All holes are loaded like cushion blasting
Reduces overbreak
Reduces the vibration