Chapter 1.

a
Vectors

Coordinate Systems
Used

to describe the position of a point in

space
Coordinate system consists of

A fixed reference point called the origin

Specific axes with scales and labels
Instructions on how to label a point relative to the
origin and the axes

Cartesian Coordinate System

Also called rectangular

coordinate system
x- and y- axes intersect
at the origin
Points are labeled (x,y)

Polar Coordinate System

Origin and reference line

are noted
Point is distance r from
the origin in the direction
of angle , ccw from
reference line
Points are labeled (r,)

Polar to Cartesian Coordinates

Based on forming
a right triangle
from r and
x = r cos
y = r sin

Trigonometry Review

Given various radius

vectors, find

Length and angle

x- and y-components
Trigonometric functions:
sin, cos, tan

Cartesian to Polar Coordinates

r is the hypotenuse and

an angle

tan

y
x

r x2 y 2

must be ccw from positive

x axis for these equations to
be valid

Example 3.1

The Cartesian coordinates of a

point in the xy plane are (x,y) =
(-3.50, -2.50) m, as shown in
the figure. Find the polar
coordinates of this point.

Solution: From Equation 3.4,

r x 2 y 2 ( 3.50 m)2 ( 2.50 m)2 4.30 m

and from Equation 3.3,

y 2.50 m
tan
0.714
x 3.50 m
216 (signs give quadrant)

Example 3.1, cont.

Change the point in the

x-y plane
Note its Cartesian
coordinates
Note its polar
coordinates

Please insert
active fig. 3.3
here

Vectors and Scalars

A

scalar quantity is completely specified by

a single value with an appropriate unit and
has no direction.
A vector quantity is completely described by
a number and appropriate units plus a
direction.

Vector Example

A particle travels from A to B

along the path shown by the
dotted red line

This is the distance

traveled and is a scalar

The displacement is the

solid line from A to B

The displacement is
independent of the path
taken between the two
points
Displacement is a vector

Vector Notation

r
Text uses bold with arrow to denote a vector: A
Also used for printing is simple bold print: A
When dealing with just the magnitude of a
vector in print, an italic letter will be used: A or
r
| A|

The magnitude of the vector has physical units

The magnitude of a vector is always a positive
number
r

When handwritten, use an arrow: A

Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors are equal

if they have the same
magnitude and the
same
r r direction
A B if A = B and
they point along parallel
lines
All of the vectors shown
are equal

Adding Vectors
When

adding vectors, their directions must

be taken into account
Units must be the same
Graphical Methods

Use scale drawings

Algebraic

Methods

More convenient

Adding Vectors Graphically

Choose a scale
r
Draw the first vector, A , with the appropriate length
and in the direction specified, with respect to a
coordinate system
Draw the next vector with the appropriate length and
in the direction specified, with respect to a
r
coordinate system whose origin is the end of vector
A
r
and parallel to the coordinate system
A
used for

Adding Vectors Graphically,

cont.
Continue drawing the
vectors tip-to-tail
The resultant is drawn
r
from the origin of A to
the end of the last
vector
r
Measure the length of R
and its angle

Use the scale factor to

convert length to actual
magnitude

Adding Vectors Graphically,

final

When you have many

vectors, just keep
repeating the process
until all are included
The resultant is still
drawn from the tail of
the first vector to the tip
of the last vector

Adding Vectors, Rules

When two vectors are

added, the sum is
independent of the
order of the addition.

This is the Commutative

Law of Addition

r r r r
A B B A

Adding Vectors, Rules cont.

When adding three or more vectors, their sum is

independent of the way in which the individual
vectors are grouped

the
r
r Property of Addition
r This
r is called
r Associative
r
A BC A B C

Adding Vectors, Rules final

When

adding vectors, all of the vectors must

have the same units
All of the vectors must be of the same type of
quantity

For example, you cannot add a displacement to a

velocity

Negative of a Vector
The

negative of a vector is defined as the

vector that, when added to the original vector,
gives a resultant ofr zero
Represented as A
r
r
A A 0
The negative of the vector will have the same
magnitude, but point in the opposite direction

Subtracting Vectors

Special case of vector

addition
r
r
r r
If A B , then use A B
Continue with standard
vector addition
procedure

Subtracting Vectors, Method 2

Another way to look at

subtraction is to find the
vector that, added to
the second vector gives
you the first vector
r

A B C

As shown, the resultant

vector points from the tip
of the second to the tip of
the first

Multiplying or Dividing a
Vector by a Scalar

The result of the multiplication or division of a vector

by a scalar is a vector
The magnitude of the vector is multiplied or divided
by the scalar
If the scalar is positive, the direction of the result is
the same as of the original vector
If the scalar is negative, the direction of the result is
opposite that of the original vector

Component Method of Adding

Vectors
Graphical

addition is not recommended when

High accuracy is required

If you have a three-dimensional problem

Component

method is an alternative method

It uses projections of vectors along coordinate

axes

Components of a Vector,
Introduction

A component is a
projection of a vector
along an axis

Any vector can be

completely described by
its components

It is useful to use
rectangular
components

These are the projections

of the vector along the xand y-axes

Vector Component
Terminology

r
r
r
A x and A y are the component vectors of A

They are vectors and follow all the rules for

vectors

and Ay are scalars, and

r will be referred to
as the components of A
x

Components of a Vector

Assume you
r are given
a vector A
It can be expressed in
terms of two
r
r other
vectors, A x and A y
These three vectors
form a right triangle
r r
r
A Ax Ay

Components of a Vector, 2

The y-component is
moved to the end of
the x-component
This is due to the fact
that any vector can be
moved parallel to
itself without being
affected

This completes the

triangle

Components of a Vector, 3

The x-component of a vector is the projection along

the x-axis

Ax A cos

The y-component of a vector is the projection along

the y-axis

Ay A sin

This assumes the angle is measured with respect

to the x-axis

If not, do not use these equations, use the sides of the

triangle directly

Components of a Vector, 4

The components are the legs of the right triangle

whose hypotenuse is the length of A
2
2
1 Ay
A Ax Ay and tan
Ax

May still have to find with respect to the positive x-axis

Components of a Vector, final

The components can

be positive or negative
and will have the same
units as the original
vector
The signs of the
components will
depend on the angle

Unit Vectors
A

unit vector is a dimensionless vector with

a magnitude of exactly 1.
Unit vectors are used to specify a direction
and have no other physical significance

Unit Vectors, cont.

The symbols

i ,j, andk

represent unit vectors

They form a set of
mutually perpendicular
vectors in a righthanded coordinate
system
Remember, i j k 1

Viewing a Vector and Its

Projections

Rotate the axes for

various views
Study the projection of
a vector on various
planes

x, y
x, z
y, z

Unit Vectors in Vector Notation

Ax is the same as Ax i
and Ay is the same as
Ayj etc.
The complete vector
can be expressed as

r
A Ax i Ay j

Adding Vectors Using Unit

Vectors
r r r
Using R A B
r
Then R A i A j B i B j
x
y
x
y
r
R Ax Bx i Ay By j
r
R Rx i Ry j

and

so Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By
R R R
2
x

2
y

tan

Ry
Rx

Adding Vectors with Unit

Vectors

Note the relationships

among the components
of the resultant and the
components of the
original vectors
Rx = Ax + Bx

Ry = Ay + By

Three-Dimensional Extension
r r r
Using R A B
r
Then

and

R Ax i Ay j Azk Bx i By j Bzk
r
R Ax Bx i Ay By j Az Bz k
r
R Rx i Ry j Rzk

so Rx= Ax+Bx, Ry= Ay+By, and Rz =Ax+Bz

R R R R
2
x

2
y

2
z

Rx
cos
, etc.
R
1

Example 3.5 Taking a Hike

A hiker begins a trip by first walking 25.0 km

southeast from her car. She stops and sets up her
tent for the night. On the second day, she walks 40.0
km in a direction 60.0 north of east, at which point
she discovers a forest rangers tower.

Example 3.5

(A) Determine the components

of the hikers displacement for
each day.

r
A

Solution: We conceptualize the problem by

drawing a sketch as in the figure above. If we r
denote
A
r the displacement vectors on the first and
B days by and
second
respectively, and use the
car as the origin of coordinates,
we obtain the
r
R figure. Drawing the resultant
vectors shown in the
, we can now categorize this problem as an

Example 3.5

We will analyze this

problem by using our new
knowledge of vector
components. Displacement
has a magnitude of 25.0
km and is directed 45.0
below the positive x axis.

r
A

From Equations 3.8 and 3.9, its components are:

Ax A cos( 45.0) (25.0 km)(0.707) = 17.7 km

Ay A sin( 45.0) (25.0 km)( 0.707) 17.7 km
The negative value of Ay indicates that the hiker walks
in the negative y direction on the first day. The signs of
Ax and Ay also are evident from the figure above.

Example 3.5

The second r
displacement B has a
magnitude of 40.0 km
and is 60.0 north of
east.
Its components are:

Bx B cos 60.0 (40.0 km)(0.500) = 20.0 km

B y B sin 60.0 (40.0 km)(0.866) 34.6 km

Example 3.5

(B) Determine the

components of the hikers
r
resultant displacement R
for the
r trip. Find an
R
expression
for in terms of
unit vectors.

r
R

r r r
R trip
A B
Solution: The resultant displacement for the
has components given by Equation 3.15:
Rx = Ax + Bx = 17.7 km + 20.0 km = 37.7 km
Ry = Ay + By = -17.7 km + 34.6 km = 16.9 km
In unit-vector
form, we can write the total
r
displacement
as i + 16.9j) km
R = (37.7

Example 3.5

Using Equations 3.16 and

3.17, we find that the
resultant vector has a
magnitude of 41.3 km and
is directed 24.1 north of
east.

r
R

r
Let us finalize. The units R
of
are km, which is
reasonable for a displacement. Looking at the graphical
representation in the figure above, we estimate that the
final
r position of the hiker is at about (38 km, r17 km)
which
R is consistent with the components of R in our final
result. Also, both components of
are positive, putting
the final position in the first quadrant of the coordinate

Chapter 1.b
Motion in Several Dimensions

Motion in Two Dimensions

Using + or signs is not always sufficient to fully

describe motion in more than one dimension

Vectors can be used to more fully describe motion

Will look at vector nature of quantities in more detail

Still interested in displacement, velocity, and

acceleration
Will serve as the basis of multiple types of motion in
future chapters

Position and Displacement

The position of an
object is describedrby
its position vector, r
The displacement of
the object is defined as
the change in its
position
r r r

r rf ri

General Motion Ideas

In

two- or three-dimensional kinematics,

everything is the same as as in onedimensional motion except that we must now
use full vector notation

Positive and negative signs are no longer

sufficient to determine the direction

Average Velocity

The average velocity is the ratio of the displacement

to the time interval for the displacement
r
r
r
vavg
t
The direction of the average velocity is the direction
of the displacement vector
The average velocity between points is independent
of the path taken

This is because it is dependent on the displacement, also

independent of the path

Instantaneous Velocity

The instantaneous
velocity is the limit of the
average velocity as t
approaches zero
r
r
r
r dr
v lim

dt
t 0 t

As the time interval

becomes smaller, the
direction of the
displacement approaches
that of the line tangent to
the curve

Instantaneous Velocity, cont

The

direction of the instantaneous velocity

vector at any point in a particles path is along
a line tangent to the path at that point and in
the direction of motion
The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity
vector is the speed

The speed is a scalar quantity

Average Acceleration
The

average acceleration of a particle as it

moves is defined as the change in the
instantaneous velocity vector divided by the
time interval during which that change
occurs.

r
aavg

r r
r
v f v i v

tf ti
t

Average Acceleration, cont

As a particle moves,
the direction of the
change in velocity is
found by vector
subtraction
r r r

v v f v i

The average
acceleration is a vector
quantity directed along

r
v

Instantaneous Acceleration
The

instantaneous acceleration
is the limiting
r
value of the ratio v t as t approaches
zero
r
r

r
v dv
a lim

dt
t 0 t

The instantaneous equals the derivative of the

velocity vector with respect to time

Producing An Acceleration
Various

changes in a particles motion may

produce an acceleration

The magnitude of the velocity vector may change

The direction of the velocity vector may change

Even if the magnitude remains constant

Both may change simultaneously

Kinematic Equations for TwoDimensional Motion

When the two-dimensional motion has a constant

acceleration, a series of equations can be
developed that describe the motion
These equations will be similar to those of onedimensional kinematics
Motion in two dimensions can be modeled as two
independent motions in each of the two
perpendicular directions associated with the x and y
axes

Any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion

in the x direction

Kinematic Equations, 2
Position

for a particle moving in the xy

r vector
plane r x i yj
The velocity vector can be found from the
positionr vector
r dr
v
v x i v y j
dt

Since acceleration is constant, we can also find

an expression
r the velocity as a function of
r
r for
time: v f v i at

Kinematic Equations, 3
The

position vector can also be expressed as

a function of time:

r r r
r 2
1
rf ri v i t
at
2
This indicates that the position vector is the sum
of three other vectors:

The initial position vector

The displacement resulting from the initial velocity
The displacement resulting from the acceleration

Projectile Motion
An

object may move in both the x and y

directions simultaneously
The form of two-dimensional motion we will
deal with is called projectile motion

Assumptions of Projectile
Motion
The

free-fall acceleration is constant over the

range of motion

It is directed downward
This is the same as assuming a flat Earth over the
range of the motion
It is reasonable as long as the range is small
compared to the radius of the Earth

The

effect of air friction is negligible

With these assumptions, an object in
projectile motion will follow a parabolic path

This path is called the trajectory

Projectile Motion Diagram

Analyzing Projectile Motion

Consider the motion as the superposition of the

motions in the x- and y-directions
The actual position at any time is given by:
r r r
r 2
1
rf ri v i t
gt
2

The initial velocity can be expressed in terms of its

components

The x-direction has constant velocity

vxi = vi cos and vyi = vi sin

ax = 0

The y-direction is free fall

ay = -g

Effects of Changing Initial

Conditions

The velocity vector

components depend on
the value of the initial
velocity

Change the angle and

note the effect
Change the magnitude
and note the effect

Analysis Model
The

analysis model is the superposition of

two motions

Motion of a particle under constant velocity in the

horizontal direction
Motion of a particle under constant acceleration in
the vertical direction

Specifically, free fall

Projectile Motion Vectors

r r r
r 2
1
rf ri v i t
gt
2
The final position is the
vector sum of the initial
position, the position
resulting from the initial
velocity and the
position resulting from
the acceleration

Projectile Motion
Implications
The

y-component of the velocity is zero at the

maximum height of the trajectory
The acceleration stays the same throughout
the trajectory

Range and Maximum Height of

a Projectile

When analyzing projectile

motion, two
characteristics are of
special interest
The range, R, is the
horizontal distance of the
projectile
The maximum height the
projectile reaches is h

Height of a Projectile, equation

The

maximum height of the projectile can be

found in terms of the initial velocity vector:
v i2 sin2 i
h
2g

This

equation is valid only for symmetric

motion

Range of a Projectile, equation

The

range of a projectile can be expressed in

terms of the initial velocity vector:
2
v i sin 2 i
R
g
This is valid only for symmetric trajectory

More About the Range of a

Projectile

Range of a Projectile, final

The

maximum range occurs at i = 45o

Complementary

angles will produce the

same range

The maximum height will be different for the two

angles
The times of the flight will be different for the two
angles

Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion occurs when an object

moves in a circular path with a constant speed
The associated analysis motion is a particle in
uniform circular motion
An acceleration exists since the direction of the
motion is changing

This change in velocity is related to an acceleration

The velocity vector is always tangent to the path of

the object

Changing Velocity in Uniform

Circular Motion

The change in the

velocity vector is due to
the change in direction

The vector diagram

r
r
r
shows vf v i v

Centripetal Acceleration
The

acceleration is always perpendicular to

the path of the motion
The acceleration always points toward the
center of the circle of motion
This acceleration is called the centripetal
acceleration

Centripetal Acceleration, cont

The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration vector

is given by

v2
aC
r

The direction of the centripetal acceleration vector is

always changing, to stay directed toward the center
of the circle of motion

Period
The

period, T, is the time required for one

complete revolution
The speed of the particle would be the
circumference of the circle of motion divided
by the period
Therefore, the period is defined as
2 r
T
v

Tangential Acceleration

The magnitude of the velocity could also be changing

In this case, there would be a tangential acceleration
The motion would be under the influence of both
tangential and centripetal accelerations

Note the changing acceleration vectors

Total Acceleration
The

tangential acceleration causes the

change in the speed of the particle
The radial acceleration comes from a change
in the direction of the velocity vector

Total Acceleration, equations

dv
The tangential acceleration: at
dt

v2
The radial acceleration: ar aC
r

The total acceleration:

a a a
2
r

2
t

Magnitude

Direction
Same as velocity vector if v is increasing, opposite if v is
decreasing

Relative Velocity

Two observers moving relative to each other

generally do not agree on the outcome of an
experiment
However, the observations seen by each are related
to one another
A frame of reference can described by a Cartesian
coordinate system for which an observer is at rest
with respect to the origin

Different Measurements,
example

Observer A measures
point P at +5 m from
the origin
Observer B measures
point P at +10 m from
the origin
The difference is due to
the different frames of
reference being used

Different Measurements,
another example

The man is walking on the

moving beltway
The woman on the beltway
sees the man walking at his
normal walking speed
The stationary woman sees
the man walking at a much
higher speed

The combination of the

speed of the beltway and
the walking

The difference is due to the

relative velocity of their
frames of reference

Relative Velocity, generalized

Reference frame SA is
stationary
Reference frame SB is
r
moving to the right
relative to SA at v AB

r
This also means
that SA
v
moves at BA relative to
SB

Define time t = 0 as that

time when the origins
coincide

Notation
The

first subscript represents what is being

observed
The second subscript represents who is
doing the observing
r
Example v
AB

The velocity of A as measured by observer B

Relative Velocity, equations

The positions as seen from the two reference

frames are related through the velocity

r
r
r
rPA rPB vBAt

The derivative of the position equation will give the

velocity equation

r
r
r
uPA uPB vBA

r is the velocity of the particle P measured by observer A

u
r PA is the velocity of the particle P measured by observer B

uPB
These are called the Galilean transformation
equations

Acceleration in Different
Frames of Reference
The

derivative of the velocity equation will

give the acceleration equation
The acceleration of the particle measured by
an observer in one frame of reference is the
same as that measured by any other
observer moving at a constant velocity
relative to the first frame.