Land Surveying Chapter 3 Linear Survey, Measurement

EEC3523
Engineering Surveying
Chapter 3 : Linear Surveying
Contents
2.1
Definition
2.2
Linear Measurement Techniques
2.3
Procedure in Linear Surveying
2.4
Plotting the Survey
Definition
Linear Surveying
A method of surveying which carried out by

measuring only the length of lines.
No angular measurements are made at all.

A survey makes use of the principles of geometry.
The simplest possible geometric figure is a
triangle.
Linear Measurement
Techniques
2.2.1 Equipment
Instruments required on a linear survey
include :
Rules and tape (folding rule, steel tapes,

synthetic tapes, etc.)
Ranging pole or ranging rod.

Marking arrow.
Linear Measurement
Techniques
2.2.1 Equipment
Folding rule
Linear Measurement
Techniques
2.2.1 Equipment
Steel tapes
Linear Measurement
Techniques
2.2.1 Equipment
Ranging Pole used for sightings.
Linear Measurement
Techniques
2.2.1 Equipment
Marking Arrow
Linear Measurement
Techniques
2.2.2 Party Organization
At least two surveyors are required to measure a

long line.
Leaders job is to pull the tape in the required

direction and mark each tape length.
A known number of arrows and ranging rod are

carried by the leader.
The followers job is to align the tape and count

the tape lengths.
Linear Measurement
Techniques
2.2.3 Inclined Lines Measurements
When any measured distance is to be shown on a

plan, the horizontal distance is required and any
inclined distance must be converted to its
horizontal equivalent before plotting.
Trigonometrically, by measuring the inclined

distance and angle of inclination, the horizontal
distance can be calculated.
Linear Measurement
Techniques
Inclinometer or clinometer is used to measure

angle of slope.
Linear Measurement
Techniques
An alternative method of obtaining horizontal

measurements is without using angle-measuring,
which is known as step taping.
D1
Station 1
Drop arrow or
plumbed
ranging rods
D2
D3
Station 2
Linear Measurement
Techniques
For step taping, three persons are required : a

leader, a follower and an observer.
Follower holds end of tape against rod(s);
Leader reads the tape.
Leader holds tape horizontally;

Observer estimates horizontal position of tape,
ensuring right-angled step(s) is formed.
Linear Measurement
Techniques
Step tapping
Less accurate and more difficult to carry than other

method where horizontal distances are obtained
directly.
Considerable tension is required to straighten a tape

and avoid sagging.
Only be used as a last resort where slopes are short

and fairly steep.
2.2 Linear Measurement

Techniques
2.2.4 Errors in Taped Measurements
No matter how carefully any line is measured, all

taped measurements are subjected to error(s).

Techniques
Gross errors
Arise from inexperience, carelessness or lack of

concentration of the surveyors.
Misreading the tape graduations 6 metres and 40

millimetres is 6.040 m, not 6.400 m;
Miscounting the number of tape lengths lose count

of lengths;
Booking errors record wrong measurement, etc.

Techniques
Constant errors
Occur no matter how often a line is measured and

checked.
The error will always be of the same sign for any tape
for any given set of circumstances.
Misalignment measurements taken are not in straight

line between two end stations, resulting in greater
value.

Techniques
Constant errors
Standardization
It is important, before commencing a survey that the
measuring instrument being used is exactly the right

length.
It must be compared with some standard length,

probably a new tape kept solely for the purpose.
If a tape is not standard, it will give a wrong

measurement.
If a tape has stretched, the resultant measurement will

be shorter than the correct measurement.

Techniques
Constant errors
Standardization
The correction to measured length is found from the
formula below :
c = ( L l ) per tape or chain

length
where :
c is correction;
L is actual length of tape;
l is nominal length of tape.

Techniques
Accidental or Human errors
Arises from defects of human sight and touch.

e.g., marking various tape or chain lengths, when
estimating readings on a tape when it does not quite

coincide with a graduation mark.
Tend to be compensatory and have relatively little

significance at this level of surveying.

Techniques
Example 2.1
Line AB
Section 1 plan
Section
2 Section
Calculate
the corrected
length
of line3 AB
measured
in 3 sections as follows :
Measured
length
Angle of slope
36.50
19.26
52.77
3.5

Techniques
Solution 2.1
Corrected Section 1 :
36.50 cos 2
= 36.478 m
19.26 cos 3.5
= 19.224 m
52.77 cos 5
Corrected line AB
= 52.569 m
= 36.478 + 19.224 + 52.569
= 108.271 m

Techniques
Example 2.2
A line AB is measured using a tape of length 20
m and is found to be 65.32 m long. When
checked against a standard, the tape was found
to be 50 mm too long. Calculate :
(a) the correction to the length AB.
(b) the correct length of AB.

Techniques
Solution 2.2
A line AB is measured using a tape of (nominal) length 20
m and is found to be 65.32 m long. When checked against
a standard, the tape was found to be 50 mm too long.
Tape of (nominal) length, l = 20.00 m
If tape is 50 mm too long, actual length of tape, L = 20.00
+ 0.05 m
= 20.05 m
AB
= 65.32 m

Techniques
Solution 2.2
(a) Correction to the length AB, cAB :
Number of times tape is used
= 65.32 20
= 3.266
Tape is used 3.266 times.
c = ( L l ) per tape or chain length
c = 20.05 20.00
= +0.05 m
cAB = 3.266 x (+0.05 )
= +0.1633 m

Techniques
Solution 2.2
(b) the correct length of AB.
Corrected AB = 65.32 + 0.1633
= 65.4833 m
2.3 Procedure in Linear

Surveying
The principle of linear surveying is to divided the

area into a number of triangles, all the sides of
which are measured.
Reconnaissance survey :
Working from the whole to the part.

Formation of well-conditioned triangles.
Good measuring conditions.
Permanency of the stations.
Referencing the stations.
Obstruction to measuring.
Intervisibility of stations.
Check measurements or tie lines.

Surveying
Conducting a survey.
Surveying the framework.

Offsetting.
Recording the survey.
Referencing the survey.

Booking the details.

Surveying
Reconnaissance survey
Upon arriving at a site, a survey teams first task

is to make a reconnaissance survey of the area.
The team simply walks over the area with a view

to establishing the best sites for survey stations.
Working from the whole to part.
This is a fundamental rule of all survey operations.

The area to be surveyed is treated as a whole; and
is broken down into several triangles (trilateration a measurement of three sides).

Surveying
Formation of well-conditioned triangles.
The triangles into which area is broken should

have no angle less than 30 nor greater than
120. (These are minimum conditions).
The ideal figure is an equilateral triangle and

every effort should be made to have triangles
whose angles are all around 45 to 75.

Surveying
Good measuring conditions.
All of the lines of survey must be accurately

measured.
Lines, that are going to be physically easy to

measure, are selected.
Roads and paths are usually constructed

along even gradients and present good
measuring conditions.

Surveying
Permanency of stations.
The survey stations may have to be used at some

future date when setting-out operations take
place.
Therefore, the stations

may have to be of a
permanent nature.
Marks must be sited in

places that do not
inconvenience anyone.
Never place mark(s) on roads or paths that may

block off traffic as obstacles.

Surveying
Permanency of stations.

Surveying
Referencing the stations.
When the stations have to be used again, it is

wise to position them such that they can be
found easily.
Each station should be referenced to nearby

permanent objects like fence posts, gates,
bus stops, lamp standards, etc.
Such permanent objects are known as

referencing stations.

Surveying
Obstructions to measuring.
Obstacles like pond, river or railway cutting will

present a considerable problem to measurement.
They should be avoided if at all possible.
Intervisibilty of stations.
It is necessary to be able to see only from any

one station to the other two stations of any
triangle.
An attempt should be made to see as many

stations as possible from any one station.

Surveying
Before a survey is complete, check

measurements must be made.
A check line is a dimension that will prove the

accuracy of part, of all, of a survey.
In the figure presented in the following slide,

line CF is measured to check for triangles
ABD, BCD, and ADF.
On completion of the plotting, the scaled

distance of this line must be agree with its
actual measured length.

Surveying

Surveying

Surveying
Conducting a survey
Surveying framework.
The figure in the previous slide shows is an

example of survey layout, consisting of
trilateration framework and a series of offsets.
Various lines are measured using the methods

previously described.
Plan length is required and all gradient must be

carefully observed and measured.
If line BD in previous figure is being measured, a

ranging pole should be left at point G, for the
purpose of getting a check point and producing
check lines AG and CG.

Surveying
Conducting a survey
Offsetting.
Offsets are short lengths measured to all points

of detail from points along the main frame lines.
The latter points are called chainages.
Offsets
Object
Survey line
Chainages

Surveying
Conducting a survey
Offsetting.
Wherever possible, the offsets are measured

at right angles to the survey lines with the
right angle being judged by eye.
On average, the naked eye can detect a

distance of 0.25 mm on paper during plotting.
An average person is able to judge a right

angle to 3.

Surveying
Conducting a survey
Offsetting.
The oblique offsets are used when the maximum

allowable right-angled offset is to be exceeded.
They provide greater accuracy and are used to

fix important details, like corners of a house.
Oblique
Offset
House
Oblique
Offset
Survey line

Surveying
Conducting a survey
Offsetting.
When a building or wall, etc., lies at an angle to a

survey line, it may be desirable to use in line
offsets.
They are similar to oblique offsets but have the

advantage that they are measured on the line of
the detail feature.
In line
Offset
House
In line
Offset
Survey line

Surveying
Conducting a survey
Offsetting.

Surveying
Recording the survey
The first task in booking is to make a reference

sketch of the survey as a whole.
The sketch is drawn to show the main survey

stations in their correct relationship.
Length is written alongside each lines,

together with any gradient values.
Measurements in the direction of arrows

indicate gradients, and are always positive
downhill.

Surveying

Surveying

Surveying
The details to be surveyed from the main

survey lines include the road, hedges, fences,
building and stream.
There are two methods of detail bookings,

namely double line method, and single line
method.

Surveying
Double line method.

Surveying
Single line method.
2.4 Plotting the Survey
Results of the fieldwork.

Plotting equipment.
Procedure in plotting :
Orientation
Rough sketch
Scale
Calculation of plain lengths
Plotting the framework
Plotting the details
Computer aided design/draughting (CAD)

Results of the fieldwork
Results are to be plotted

to a suitable scale on
paper.

Plotting equipment
Paper.
Scale rules.
Compasses.
Others.

Procedure in plotting
Orientation
Most maps and

plans are drawn
and interpreted
looking north
towards the top
of the paper.
Top and bottom

of a plotting
material are
respectively north
and south.
Line
Slope length
(m)
Angle of inclination
()
BD
54.33
2.5
Procedure
BG in plotting
30.00
CG
Calculation
of30.02
plain lengths
2.5
2.0
GA
23.06
2.0
AD
19.36
3.0
FE
18.12
4.0
FH
15.43
2.0
Line
Plan length (m)
BD
54.33 cos 2.5 = 54.278
BG
30.00 cos 2.5 = 29.971
Procedure
in plotting
CG
30.02 cos 2.0 =
30.002
GA
2.0 = 23.046
Calculation
of 23.06
plaincos
lengths
AD
19.36 cos 3.0 = 19.333
FE
18.12 cos 4.0 = 18.076
FH
15.43 cos 2.0 = 15.421
Plotting the Survey

Computer aided design/draughting (CAD)
CAD software is used to produce final survey

drawings.
AutoCAD from Autodesk and Microstation

from Bentley are the most widely used
packages.
Simpler, less expensive software such as

Design CAD 3DMAX is used too.
End of Chapter 3
Revise
2.1 Definition
2.2 Linear Measurement Techniques
2.3 Procedure in Linear Surveying

Land Surveying Chapter 3 Linear Survey, Measurement

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Land Surveying Chapter 3 Linear Survey, Measurement

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EEC3523

Chapter 3 : Linear Surveying

Linear Measurement Techniques

Procedure in Linear Surveying

Plotting the Survey

A method of surveying which carried out by

No angular measurements are made at all.

Rules and tape (folding rule, steel tapes,

Ranging pole or ranging rod.

Ranging Pole used for sightings.

At least two surveyors are required to measure a

Leaders job is to pull the tape in the required

A known number of arrows and ranging rod are

The followers job is to align the tape and count

When any measured distance is to be shown on a

Trigonometrically, by measuring the inclined

Inclinometer or clinometer is used to measure

An alternative method of obtaining horizontal

For step taping, three persons are required : a

Follower holds end of tape against rod(s);

Leader reads the tape.

Leader holds tape horizontally;

Less accurate and more difficult to carry than other

Considerable tension is required to straighten a tape

Only be used as a last resort where slopes are short

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.2.4 Errors in Taped Measurements

No matter how carefully any line is measured, all

2.2 Linear Measurement

Arise from inexperience, carelessness or lack of

Misreading the tape graduations 6 metres and 40

Miscounting the number of tape lengths lose count

Booking errors record wrong measurement, etc.

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.2.4 Errors in Taped Measurements

Occur no matter how often a line is measured and

Misalignment measurements taken are not in straight

2.2 Linear Measurement

measuring instrument being used is exactly the right

It must be compared with some standard length,

If a tape is not standard, it will give a wrong

If a tape has stretched, the resultant measurement will

2.2 Linear Measurement

c = ( L l ) per tape or chain

2.2 Linear Measurement

Accidental or Human errors

Arises from defects of human sight and touch.

estimating readings on a tape when it does not quite

Tend to be compensatory and have relatively little

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.2 Linear Measurement

2.3 Procedure in Linear

The principle of linear surveying is to divided the

Working from the whole to the part.

2.3 Procedure in Linear

Surveying the framework.

Recording the survey.

Referencing the survey.

2.3 Procedure in Linear