Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Topics
Channel Allocation Problem
Random Access Protocols
Controlled Access
Channelization
Ethernet
Data Link Layer Switching
HDLC
PPP
Introduction to X.25, Frame Relay and ATM
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
1
Mean Time delayT
C
TFDM
NT
(C / N ) ( / N )
Rejo Mathew, Asst Prof,
IT
ALOHA of U. of Hawaii
Computer
Center
413MHz at 9600bps
407MHz at 9600bps
Rejo Mathew, Asst Prof,
IT
S
G
channel
collision?
No
old frame
Yes
S GP
slotted ALOHA
packet
Other nodes that are ready at this period will result in collision.
Rejo Mathew, Asst Prof,
IT
G k eG
Pr[k ]
k!
( 2G ) k e 2G
Pr[k ]
k!
dS
dS
e G Ge G ,
0 G 1, S e 1
dG
dG
1
dS
dS
1
e
S Ge 2G ,
e 2G 2Ge 2G ,
0 G ,S
dG
dG
2
2
S Ge G ,
k 1
k 1
Pk e G (1 e G ) k 1
E kPk ke G (1 e G )k 1 eG
As a result of the exponential dependence of E upon G, small increases
in the channel load can drastically reduce its performance.
Rejo Mathew, Asst Prof,
IT
3. A reaches B
5.B reaches A
B
t=0
2.B starts
transmitting
PROP
4.B detects collision,
transmits JAM, stops
2PROP
Stations binary
address
A dash
indicates
silence.
if D transmits
others are promoted
Rejo Mathew, Asst Prof,
IT
delay
Light load
Contention protocol
Contention-free protocol
channel
efficiency
Heavy load
good
bad
bad
good
k 1
Maximum occurs at p=1/k with Pr[success with optimal p]=
k
Rejo Mathew, Asst Prof,
IT
Put in more general terms, at what level in the tree should the
search begin?
RTS (30 bytes) and CTS contains the data length that will eventually follow.
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
Any station hearing the RTS is clearly close to A and must remain
silent long enough for the CTS to be transmitted back to A without
conflict.
Any station hearing the CTS is clearly close to B and must remain
silent during the upcoming data transmission, whose length it can
tell by examining the CTS frame.
Controlled Access
Reservation
Polling
Token passing
Channelization
FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
4.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.1 Bridging (networking) and Network
Management
IEEE 802.17 Resilient packet ring
IEEE 802.2 Logical link control
IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG
IEEE 802.4 Token bus
IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband
IEEE 802.5 Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring
Wireless Access
IEEE 802.6 Metropolitan Area Networks
IEEE 802.21 Media Independent
IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable
Handoff
IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG
IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area
IEEE 802.9 Integrated Services LAN
Network
IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN & Mesh (Wi-Fi
certification)
IEEE 802.12 demand priority
IEEE 802.13 Cat.6 - 10Gb lan (new founded)
IEEE 802.14 Cable modems
IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN
IEEE 802.15.1 (Bluetooth certification)
IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee certification)
IEEE 802.16 Broadband
Wireless
AccessManagement and
Rejo Mathew, Asst Prof,
Mukesh Patel
School of Technology
IT
(WiMAX certification) Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
Cable topologies. (a) Linear, (b) Spine, (c) Tree, (d) Segmented
10BASE5
10BASE2
1BASE5
10BROAD36
10BA
Ethernet
Cheaper net
StarLAN
Broadband
Twisted
coaxial cabletwisted-paircoaxial cable 2 simplex TP
medium coaxial cable
50ohm-10mm
50ohms-5mm
unshielded 75ohms
unshielded
10Mbps
Manch
maximum
segment 500m
maximum
2.5km
distance
signals
nodes per
segment
100
10Mbps
Manch
1Mbps
Manch
10Mbps
DPSK
10Mbps
Manch
185m
500m
1800m
100m
0.925km
2.5km
3.6km
1km
30
activity on
2 active hub transmission
excess current
receiver and
inputs
=reception
transmitter
Notes slot time=512 bits; gap time=96 bits; jam=32 to 48 bits
collision
detection
4.3 Ethernet
Manchester Encoding
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
Ethernet Frame Structure v2 (or DIX Ethernet, for DEC, Intel, Xerox)
7
eamble
SFD
DA
6
SA
type
Data
CRC
60 to 1514 bytes
synchronize
the receiver
Start Frame
Delimiter
Improving Aloha
Aloha
Low goodput
Goto (a)
Wait time
0 = persistent
Random = non-persistent
Transmit instant
Transmit with probability p
Node can transmit now, since medium is free
It tosses a coin and then decides (p=0.5)
If wait time=0; and p=1 then called p-persistent CSMA
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
4.3 Ethernet
K 512
4.3 Ethernet
Acknowledgements
As far as CSMA/CD is concerned, an acknowledgement would be
just another frame and would have to fight for channel time just
like a data frame.
(What is the problem?)
A simple modification would allow speedy confirmation of frame
receipt. All that would be needed is to reserve the first
contention slot following successful transmission for the
destination station.
4.3 Ethernet
Performance
Assume k stations are always ready to transmit and a constant
retransmission probability in each slot. (A rigorous analysis of the
binary exponential backoff algorithm is complicated.)
If each station transmits during a contention slot with probability p,
the probability A that some station acquires the channel in that slot
is
A kp (1 p ) k 1
1
A is maximized when p , with
k
A 1/e as k .
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
4.3 Ethernet
Performance
The probability that the contention interval has exactly j slots in it
is A(1-A)j-1, so the mean number of slots per contention is given by
jA(1 A)
j 0
j 1
4.3 Ethernet
Performance
If the mean frame takes P sec to transmit, when many stations
have frames to send,
channel efficiency=
P
P 2 / A
Here we see where the maximum cable distance between any two
stations enters into the performance figures. The longer the cable,
the longer the contention interval. By allowing no more than
2.5km of cable and four repeaters between any two transceivers,
the round-trip time can be bounded to 51.2 sec, which at 10Mbps
corresponds to 512 bits or 64 bytes, the minimum frame size.
4.3 Ethernet
Performance
Let P=F/B (frame_length/bandwidth) and =L/C
(cable_length/signal_propagation_speed). For the optimal case of
e contention slots per frame,
channel efficiency=
1
1 2 BLe / cF
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
The three primary reasons that the 803 committee decided to
go with a souped-up 802.3 LAN (instead of a totally new
one) were:
1. The need to be backward compatible with thousands of
existing LANs.
2. The fear that a new protocol might have unforeseen
problems.
3. The desire to get the job done before the technology
changed.
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
The basic idea behind fast Ethernet was simple: keep all the old
packet formats, interfaces, and procedural rules, but just reduce the
bit time form 100 nsec to 10 nsec.
Technically, it would have been possible to copy 10Base5 or
10Base2 and still detect collisions on time by just reducing the
maximum cable length by a factor of ten.
However, the advantages of 10BaseT wiring were so overwhelming
that fast Ethernet is based entirely on this design. Thus all fast
Ethernet systems use hubs.
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Of the four twisted pairs, one is always to the hub, one is always from
the hub, and the other two are switchable to the current transmission
direction.
To get the necessary bandwidth, Manchester encoding is not used,
but with modern clocks and such short distances, it is no longer
needed.
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Ternary signals are sent, so that during a single clock period the wire
can contain a 0, a 1, or a 2. With three twisted pairs going in the
forward direction and ternary signaling, any one of the 27 possible
symbols can be transmitted, making it possible to send 4 bits with
some redundancy. Transmitting 4 bits in each of the 25 million clock
cycles per second gives the necessary 100 Mbps.
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
For category 5 wiring, the design, 100Base-TX, is simpler because
the wires can handle clock rates up to 125 MHz and beyond. Only
two twisted pairs per station are used, one to the hub and one from
it.
Rather than just use straight binary coding, a scheme called 4B5B is
used at 125 MHz. Every group of 5 clock periods is used to send 4
bits in order to give some redundancy, provide enough transitions to
allow easy clock synchronization, create unique patterns for frame
delimiting, and be compatible with FDDI in the physical layer.
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Consequently, 100Base-TX is a full-duplex system; stations can
transmit at 100 Mbps and receive at 100 Mbps at the same time.
Often 100Base-TX and 100Base-T4 are collectively referred as
100Base-T.
4.3 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Two kinds of hubs are possible with 100Base-T4 and 100Base-TX:
hub: all incoming lines are logically connected, forming a single
collision domain.
switches: each incoming frame is buffered on a plug-in line card.
Buffered frames are passed over a high-speed backplane from the
source card to the destination card.
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
The ink was barely dry on the fast Ethernet standard when the
802 committee bagan working on a yet faster Ethernet. It was
quickly dubbed gigabit Ethernet and was ratified by IEEE in 1998
under the name 802.3z.
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
All configurations of gigabit Ethernet are point-to-point.
Each individual Ethernet cable has exactly two devices on it, no more
and no fewer.
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
Two different modes of operation: full duplex and half duplex
Normal mode -- full-duplex - connected to a switch.
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
Half-duplex -- connected to a hub.
A hub does not buffer incoming frames. So collisions are possible
and CSMA/CD is required.
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
1.Carrier extension, essentially tells the hardware to add its own
padding to extend the frame to 512 bytes. Of course, using 512
bytes to transmit 64 bytes of data has a line efficiency of 9%.
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
Cabling
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
8B/10B is used. Each 8-bit byte is encoded as 10 bits.
256 out of 1024. Two rules are used:
1. No codeword may have more than four identical bits in a row.
2. No codeword may have more than six 0s or six 1s.
In addition, many input bytes have two possible codewords assigned
to them. When there is a choice, the encoder always chooses the
one that tries to equalize the number of 0s and 1s transmitted so
far.
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
1000Base-T uses a different encoding scheme since clocking data
onto copper wire in 1 nsec is too difficult.
The solution uses four category 5 twisted pairs to allow four
symbols to be transmitted in parallel.
Each symbol is encoded using one of five voltage levels. This
scheme allows a single symbol to encode 00, 01, 10, 11, or a
special value for control purposes.
The clock runs at 125MHz, allowing 1-Gbps operation.
4.3 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet supports flow control which consists of one end
sending a special control frame to the other end telling it to pause
for some period of time.
For gigabit Ethernet, the time unit for pause is 512 nsec. The
maximum is 33.6 msec.
802.3ae: 10G Ethernet
4.3 Ethernet
IEEE Standard 802.2: Logical Link Control
4.3 Ethernet
Why Ethernet is so successful? Last more than 20 years!
Ethernet is simple and flexible.
Simple translates into reliable, cheap, and easy to maintain.
Ethernet interworks easily with TCP/IP. Both IP and Ethernet are
connectionless.
Speed can catch up with other standards.
Bridge
A
C
LANs can be connected by devices called bridges, which operate in
the data link layer. Bridges do not examine the network layer header.
Router
A
Router
In contrast, a router examines network layer headers.
For example, the route from A to D: (L1, B1, L2, B2, L3)
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
Hub
Bridge
Switch
(a) Four physical LANs organized into two VLANs, gray and white, by
two bridges. (b) The same 15 machines organized into two VLANs
by switches.
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
Summary
HDLC Overview
Broadly HDLC features are as follows:
Reliable protocol
selective repeat or go-back-N
Full-duplex communication
receive and transmit at the same time
Bit-oriented protocol
use bits to stuff flags occurring in data
Flow control
adjust window size based on receiver capability
HDLC Overview
HDLC
The three stations are :
Primary station
Has the responsibility of controlling the operation of data flow the
link.
Handles error recovery
Frames issued by the primary station are called commands.
Secondary station,
Operates under the control of the primary station.
Frames issued by a secondary station are called responses.
The primary station maintains a separate logical link with each
secondary station.
Combined station,
Acts as both as primary and secondary station.
Does not rely on other for sending data
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
HDLC
Unbalanced Mode
Commands
Primary
Responses
Secondary
Secondary
Balanced mode
Combined
Combined
commands/Respons
es
HDLC
The three modes of data transfer operations are
Normal Response Mode (NRM)
Mainly used in terminal-mainframe networks. In this case,
Secondaries (terminals) can only transmit when specifically instructed
by the primary station in response to a polling
Unbalanced configuration, good for multi-point links
(b) Control
field
format
HDLC
Flag: 01111110- start and ending delimiter. Bits are stuffed for flags in
data frames
Address field:
mainly used in multidrop link configuration, and not used in point-to-point
In unbalanced configuration, every secondary is assigned a unique address.
Contains address of secondary station in both command and response frames
In balanced mode, command frame has destination address and response
frame has sending nodes address
Group addresses are also possible. E.g., One command sent to all the
secondaries
In I-frames, N(s) is the sequence number of the frame being sent, and
R(s) is the sequence number of the frame being expected.
The P/F bit, known as the poll/final bit, is used with different meaning in
different contexts.
It is used to indicate polling, to indicate the final I-frame, etc
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
HDLC
There are three different classes of frames
used in HDLC
Unnumbered frames, used in link setup and
disconnection, and hence do not contain ACK.
Information frames, which carry actual
information. Such frames can piggyback ACK in
case of ABM
Supervisory frames, which are used for error
and flow control purposes and hence contain
send and receive sequence numbers
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
HDLC
There are four different supervisory frames
SS=00, Receiver Ready (RR), and N(R) ACKs all
frames received up to and including the one with
sequence number N(R) - 1
SS=10, Receiver Not Ready (RNR), and N(R) has
the same meaning as above
SS=01, Reject; all frames with sequence number
N(R) or higher are rejected, which in turns ACKs
frames with sequence number N(R) -1 or lower.
SS=11, Selective Reject; the receive rejects the
frame with sequence number N(R)
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
HDLC
The unnumbered frames can be grouped
into the following categories:
Mode-setting commands and responses
Recovery commends and responses
Miscellaneous commands and responses
PPP non-requirements
No error correction/recovery
(modems do one layer FEC, one layer
packetization + retransmission under the
covers anyway; other technologies are pretty
reliable)
No flow control
Out of order delivery OK
Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering
all relegated to higher layers!
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management and
Engineering www.nmims.edu/Engineering
Byte Stuffing
flag byte
pattern
in data
to send
An ATM cell
X.25
In case of packet switching networks, the attached
stations must organize their data into packets for
transmission.
This requires a certain level of cooperation
between the network and the attached stations.
X.25 is an ITV-T standard that specifies on
interface between a host system and packet
switching network.
The functionality of X.25 is specified in three levels
they are:
Physical level
Link Level
X.25
Physical level:
Physical level deals with the physical interface between an
attached station and the link that attaches that station to
the packet switching node.
Link level:
The link level provides for the reliable transfer of data across
the physical link, by transmitting the data as a sequence of
frames.
The link level standard is referred to as LAPB (link access
protocol balanced)LAPB is subset of HDLC.
Packet level:
The packet level provides a virtual circuit service.
This service enables any subscriber to the network to setup
logical connections called virtual circuits, to other
subscribers.
X.25
Frame Relay