SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

SYLLABUS

CONCEPT OF SYSTEM
TYPE OF SYSTEM-OPEN, CLOSED,
DETERMINISTIC,PROBABLISTIC ETC.
RELVANCE OF CHOICE OF SYSTEM IN MIS
INTEGRATION OF ORGANIZATION SYSTEM AND
INFORMATION SYSTEM
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
SYSTEM ANALYSIS,DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
MIS APPROACH IN BUSINESS
 System :-
The system provides a meaningful frame work fro describing and understanding the feature
and functions of the subject. System is defined as a set of elements arranged in an orderly
manner to accomplish an objective.

Examples of system;-

System Element Objective

Computer Input, process and output devices.
Operating system, compliers,
packages
Accounting Financial transactions, accounting
principles and rules, transaction
processing method of accounting
Business People, plant and machinery,
organization product and services
,communication , transport ,
materials
Process the data and provide
information
Process the transaction and produce
monthly books of accounts and
information for financial management
Produce goods and services to
achieve the business objective of
service, turnover and profits.
It Is not randomly arranged set. It is arranged with some logic governed by
rules , regulations , principles and policies. Such arrangement is also
influenced by the objective the system desire to achieve.
for example:-
If the computer system is designed to perform commercial data processing, then
the elements will be the data entry devices, a CPU, a disk, a memory , application
programmes and a printer.

If the computer system is designed to achieve the objectives of design,

engineering and drawing processing , then the elements will be the graphic work
station , the graphic processor and the language suitable for engineering and
design application and plotter for drawing the output.

Any disorder would create a disturbance in the system, affecting the

accomplishment of the objectives.
 A system has three basic parts which are organized in an orderly manner.

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

A System may have single input and multiple output or may have several inputs
and outputs.
All the system operate in an environment. The environment may influence the
system , its design and performance. When a system is designed to achieve certain
objectives, it automatically sets the boundaries for itself. The understanding of
boundaries of the system is essential to bring a clarity in explaining the system
components and their arrangement.
If an additional objective is to be introduced in the system, it may be possible that
the new objective may fall outside the boundaries or the scope of the system.
for example the computer system designed to spread literacy amongst a large
population cannot achieve the objective of excellence in knowledge and
understanding of the language.
 Types of system
A system is defined and determined by its boundaries and objectives. A system is an
arrangement of smaller system in logical order. When the smaller system together make a larger
system , the smaller systems are called subsystems. The system can be decomposed into
smaller subsystems.
The decomposition of system into subsystem can be in two forms:-

Decomposition of system

Serial form Matrix form

Serial form:- the entire output of a subsystem is the input to the next subsystem and so on.

Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 Subsystem 3

MANUFACTURING QUALITY CONTROL MARKETING
Matrix arrangement:- the different output go to different subsystem. A subsystem receive more
than one input from the other subsystem.

Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2
MANUFACTURING MARKETING

Subsystem 3 Subsystem 4
QUALITY CONTROL ACCOUNTING

In any system the input are transformed into the output by the process. The process is
transparent. But if the process of input transformation is not visible and understandable then
we say that the system is black box and the process is not transparent.
 Type of system
Open and closed system
Open system:- Open system is one which is interactive in nature. Interactive means
they want to communicate with their environment . So they exchange data, material,
information etc with the environment.
For example:- human beings, plants ,most of the organizations are open system.

Closed system:- closed system is one which does not interact with its environment.
Actually there is no system which is completely closed but they are relatively isolated
from the environment. Relatively closed system is one which control its input, processes
and output and is protected from the environment threats.
For example:- computer program which accept and process previously defined input
and provides output in predefined format.
An accounting system which work on predefined principles and practices of accounting
theory.
 Physical and abstract system:-
Physical system:- physical system are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic
in operation. Physical system are generally concrete operational systems made up of
people, material , equipment, machine and other tangible things. Physical system are
static means which cannot change like the physical parts of a class room means, desk
, table, chair, black board. In contrast the lecture delivered by the teacher is dynamic
system because it varies every time. Other example of dynamic system is fashion
industry in which the style, size and stuff of the dress changes according to the
change in need and preference of the customers.

Abstract system:- abstract system are conceptual or non physical entities. An

abstract or conceptual system is an orderly arrangement of interdependent ideas
which may or may not have any existence in the real world. A system of theology is an
example of abstract system, which is an orderly arrangement of ideas about God and
the relationship of God to human being, another example is a system of scientific
theory.
 Super and Subsystem
Subsystem:- some systems are the part of a large system. Hence they are known as
sub-system.
For example -in business organization there are marketing , finance, production
departments,
Respiratory system of human being
They are inter interactive and dependent on each other. They work together to
achieve a common goal. The entire output of a sub-system is the input of the next
sub-system.

Super system:- super system is a large and complex system. It may or may not have
number of parts known as its sub-system. Super system is always a complex and
difficult to understand. For example education system is super system in which we
have universities, colleges ,school etc.
 Deterministic and Probabilistic system:-
Deterministic system:- a deterministic system is one in which the occurrence of all
the events is certain. In other words we can say that a deterministic system is a system
which operates in accordance with predefined set of rules. Every step and order of
their performance is known. For example:- billing system of departmental store.
Probabilistic system:- a probabilistic system is one in which the occurrence of the
event cannot be perfectly predicted. The result of such system cannot be pre-
determined. An element of probability is always there. When they are probabilistic then
the degree of error can always be predict the behaviour of the system. For example in
the examination system of an educational institution we cannot predict the result with
certainty . Another example is sales forecasting, weather forecasting.
Temporary and permanent
Temporary system:- temporary system are those system which are made to achieve
certain objective or to perform specific task. For example: project to construct a
shopping mall. When the purpose of that system is achieved it has lost its existence.
Permanent system:-permanent system are those system which has relatively long
time span. Actually in real life nothing is permanent, nut when the system is last for a
period of 15 to 20 year, it is said to be permanent for example : course curriculum of a
subject in the university.
 Natural and Man-made system:-
Natural system:- natural system are abound in nature. Natural system are god gifted
or their existence is because of nature. For example:- solar system, galaxies etc.
Man made system:- man made system were formed when people first gathered in
group to live and hunt together. Man – made system may be defined as a set of
devices , procedures, people and operating system designed to achieve a common
goal. For example business organization, industries etc.

Adaptive and Non-adaptive

Adaptive system:- a system that react to its environment in such a way as to improve
its functioning , achievement or probability of survival is called and adaptive system.
Adaptive system is open in nature , they always want to change in their surroundings.
For example:- most of business organization are adaptive system.

Non adaptive system:- a system which does not react to their environment is called
non –adaptive. They are basically closed system. For example management
information system of an organization, Indian marriage system etc.
The system can be classified in different categories based on the predictability of its
output and the degree of information exchange with the environment.

Classification of system

Based on information
Based on predictability
exchange

deterministic probabilistic closed open

 Deterministic Probabilistic

1. A system is called deterministic when the A system is called probabilistic when the
when the inputs, the process of outputs are output can only be predicted in probabilistic
known with cetainity term.

2. The accounting system is deterministic Demand forecasting system is probabilistic

3. A deterministic system operates in a Probabilistic system behaviour is not

predictable manner predictable
 Closed system
1. If the system is functioning in the isolation
from the environment then the system does
not have any exchange with the environment
nor it is influenced by environmental changes
such a system is called Closed system
2. It has no input and output
3. Environment surround the closed system
does not change
4. All kind of accounting system viz. Cash,
stocks and attendance of the employees are
closed system. Most of the system based on
rules and principles are closed system
5. The closed systems are rarely exist
Open system
If the system has exchange with the
environment and is influenced by the
environment then it is called an open system.
. It receive input and deliver the output to the
outside
Open system is self adjusting and self
regulating
The system which are required to respond to
the change in the environment such as
marketing, communication and forecasting are
open system.
All the business organization are open
systems
 Generalized model of system
ENVIRONMENT

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

FILTER

The environment influence the choice of inputs, the method of processing and the
content of the output.
Since the system is designed for specific objectives/outputs, the designer provides
a filter around the system to control the influence on the system.
For example:- a manufacturing system, where the objective is to product the
products of desired quality. Since the raw material and process are selected with
this objective, the quality control system exercise a control on the quality of
incoming production. The quality control system provides a filter around the
manufacturing system which protect the system from the undesirable influence of
the environment.
The designer of the system, therefore has to consider the environment and select
appropriate inputs and filtering mechanism to protect the system for the undue or
undesirable influences of the environment.
Most of the failure of the system lie in the area of selection of the input and the
processes and not providing the appropriate filtering systems.
 Waterfall model
Waterfall model become famous in 1970‟s.
The model states that the phase are organized in Linear order. In other words the
output of one phase become the input of next phase.
This model visualized the system as a living organism. The system takes birth,
reaches the maturity stage through adolescence and ultimately dies its natural birth.
 Limitations of waterfall model:-
1. Every phase is considered as distinct phase, which can be isolated from the rest
or next phase. The requirement of a system can be frozen before the design
begins. But for a new system, determination requirement is difficult process as
the user himself doesn‟t know his/her information requirements and thus to
freeze them is not practical.
2. Freezing the requirement usually requires the choice of hardware to be made.
However in the case of large projects which might take few years to be
completed, the earmarked hardware technology may become obsolete even
before the system becomes physical.
3. The model stresses that the requirement should be completely specified before
the beginning of the next phase. But in some cases it is desirable to first develop
a part of system completely and later enhance the system in phases. For
example the system developed for general marketing.
 Prototyping:-
In this approach a prototype system is developed, instead of complete system. It is a
Comprehensive system and does not include all the requirement of the users. This
model is based on the evolutionary model of system development. Prototyping is used
in those system , in which identification of the requirement is difficult and requirement
may change during the development process. The model advocates the development
of a throw-away prototype to be given to user to help understand his/her requirements.
On the basis of feedback, the actual system is developed.

This model has 4 steps:-

1. Identify the users basic information requirement
2. Develop the initial prototype system
3. Use of the prototype system to refine the users requirement
4. Revise and enhance the prototype system
1. Identify the users basic information requirement :- in this step the user
identifies the requirement in the form of output required from the system . The
information analyst , on the basis of their expectations, estimates the cost of
workable prototype.
2. Develop the initial prototype system:- here the initial prototype system, which
meets the users basic information requirements is developed. It is developed in the
minimum possible time. The speed of building rather than efficiency of the
prototype is the main consideration.
3. Use of the prototype system to refine the users requirement:- the initially-
developed prototype is delivered to the user to allow him to hand-on experience
with the system to identify further refinements/changes required in the prototype.
4. Revise and enhance the prototype system:- in this stage, the designer makes
the necessary changes/refinements pointed out by the user after using the
prototype. Step (3 & 4 ) are repeated again and again till the prototype is refined to
the satisfaction of the user. Prototyping approach may not be cost-effective in small
organizations. It is more suitable for larger organization where it is difficult to
identifies the user requirements.
 Advantages of Prototyping:-
1. Ability to “try out” ideas without incurring large cost.
2. Lower overall development costs when requirements change frequently.
3. The ability to get a functioning system into the hands of the user quickly.

Criticism of Prototype model:-

1. Because of its iterative nature. This approach require at least two iterations.
2. It may become an unending process of refinement , which may take too much
time , effort and money.
3. Prototypes are not complete system and many of the details are not built in the
prototype .
4. Due to frequent changes, management of the development process also become
difficult.
 Iterative enhancement model
In this model the system is developed in increment and each increment adds some
functional capabilities to the system, until the full system is developed . Additions
and modifications can be done at each step. To begin with only a subset of overall
problem is considered in developing the system. The selected subset may be one of
the important subsets , which may contain some key aspect of the problem. The
iterative enhancement model has 3 phases:
1. Analysis
2. Implementation
3. Design

Advantage of iterative model:-

It result in better testing as testing each increment is relatively easier than testing
the entire system as in the waterfall model. Also as in the prototyping the
increment provides feedback to the user which is useful for determining the final
requirements of the system. Thus the iterative enhancement model combines the
benefit of both the prototyping and waterfall model.
 Iterative model has some limitations:-
1. The model does not give a complete system and thus many of the details may not
be incorporated in the developed system.
2. As the model is based on „modify-it-again‟ approach, it may be time-consuming
and is not cost effective.

Spiral model
The spiral model is the most recent development model, which has been proposed by
Boehm. This model suggests that the various activities involved in system
development should be organized like spiral. This model provides a framework for
developing a process, which is guided by the risk level of the project. This model
as the name suggest is cyclical in nature. Each cycle of spiral consist of 4 stages
represented by one quadrant each. The angular dimension represents the process
whereas the radius of the spiral represent the cost involved.
The first stage is concerned with the identification of the objectives, various
developmental alternatives and constraints to develop an information system.
Evaluation of various alternative and identification of the risk undertaken in the
second stage.
In the third stage next level prototype is developed and verified is developed and
verified and the results of the previous stage are reviewed and planning for next
iteration is done in the fourth stage.
This model is more suitable for high-risk projects. For small projects, this model may
be time and cost-effective.
 System development stages

In order to develop a system successfully, it is managed by breaking

the total development process into smaller basic activities or phase.
Any system development process have the following phases:-

INVESTIGATION
ANALYSIS
DESIGN
CONSTRUCTION
IMPLEMENTATION
MAINTENANCE
 i. System Investigation:-Preliminary investigation is the first step in the
system development project. The objective is to determine whether the
request is valid and feasible before any recommendation is made to do
INVESTIGATION nothing, improve or modify the existing system or build altogether a
new one. The following objectives should be accomplished , while
ANALYSIS
working on the preliminary investigation. System investigation includes
the following two sub-stages:-

DESIGN
i) Problem definition
ii) Feasibility study
CONSTRUCTION i) Problem definition:- the first responsibility of a system analyst is to
prepare a written statement of the objective and the scope of the
IMPLEMENTATION
problem. Based on the interview with the users, the analyst writes a
brief description of his/her understanding of the problem, and review it
with both groups, ideally in a joint user/ information analyst meeting,
MAINTENANCE People respond to written statements. They ask for clarifications and
they correct obvious errors or misunderstandings.
 In other words proper understanding and definition of the problem is
essential to discover the cause of the problem and to plan a directed
investigation by asking the question like what is being done ? Why?
INVESTIGATION Is there an underlying reason different from the one the user
identifies?
ANALYSIS ii) Feasibility study:- the literal meaning of feasibility is viability. It is the
high level version of entire process , intended to answer a number of
DESIGN
questions like
 What is the problem?
CONSTRUCTION  Is the problem even worth solving?
The feasibility study should be relatively brief as the objective at this
IMPLEMENTATION stage is only to get an idea of the scope. The finding should be
formally presented to the user management. The aim of a feasibility
MAINTENANCE
study is to access alternative system and to propose the most
feasible and desirable system for development. It provides the
overview of the problem and act as an important checkpoint that
should be completed before committing more resources.
INVESTIGATION The feasibility of proposed system can be assessed in terms of 4 major
categories
ANALYSIS
•Organizational feasibility:- the extent to which a proposed
information system supports the objective of the organization‟s strategic
plan for information system determines the organizational feasibility of
DESIGN the system project.
•Economic feasibility:- costs and returns are evaluated to know
CONSTRUCTION
whether returns justify the investment in the system projects.
•Technical feasibility:- whether reliable hardware and software
capable of meeting the needs of the proposed system can be acquired
IMPLEMENTATION or developed by the organization in the required time.
•Operational feasibility:- the willingness and ability of the
MAINTENANCE
management, employees, customers , suppliers etc to operate ,use and
support a proposed system.
 Method of preliminary investigation
There are two main methods:-
i. Reviewing document
ii. Interviewing selected persons

i. Reviewing documents:- the analyst conducting the investigation first learn about
the organization involved in, or affected by, the system project. for example:-
review an inventory system proposal means knowing first how the inventory
department operates and who the managers and supervisors are?
System analysis:- Analysis is the detailed study of various operations of the business activity
,along with the boundaries. The objective of this phase is to determine exactly what must be
done to solve the problem. System analysis involves a detailed study of :-
i. The information needs of the organization and its end uses.
ii. Existing information system
iii. The expected information system
the final product of the system is a set of system requirement of a proposed information system.
The analysis stage provides the analyst with clear understanding of what is to be done. The
next step is to decide as to how the problem might be solved.
3. System design:- system analysis describe WHAT a system should do to meet the
information need of users. System design specifies HOW the system will accomplish this
objective. The term design refer to the technical specification that will be implied in
constructing the system. System design should stress on the following three activities:-
i. User interface:- focus on designing the interaction between the end users and computer
system.
ii. Data design:- focus on the design of logical structure of database and files to be used by
the proposed information system.
iii. Process design:- focus on the design of the software resources the programs and
procedures needed by the proposed information system.
The design must specify what type of hardware resources ,software resources and people
resources will be needed. The specification is also known as system specification.
4. Construction and testing:- once the system specification are understood, the system is
physically created. The required programs are coded, debugged and documented. The system
should be tested with the some test data to ensure its accuracy and reliability. Construction of
the system takes place on the basis of system design specification. In addition to the activities
performed during system development ,some activities are performed after the basic
development is complete. Such activities are covered under implementation phase and
maintenance phase.
5. Implementation:- the system implementation stage involves hardware and software
acquisition ,site preparation, user training and installation of the system. Testing of the system
involving all component and procedure should be done. Implementation is the most crucial
phase of the system development life cycle, because this step is vital in assuring the success of
nay newly developed system. Even a well- designed system will fail if it is not properly
implemented.
6. Maintenance:- system maintenance involves the monitoring , evaluating and modifying of
the system make desirable or necessary improvements. Maintenance include enhancement,
modifications or any change from the original specification. Software need to be maintained not
because some of its module or programs “wear out” and need to be replaced but because there
are often some residual errors remaining in the system which have to be removed as soon as
they are discovered. This is on-going process, until the system stablises.
 System design
System design is another important step in the system development process. This
phase start after the system analysis phase is over. In other words the output of the
system analysis phase i.e. Requirement specification become an input in the design
phase. Data requirement are worked out on the basis of user requirement estimates.

Objective of system design

1. Practicality:- the system should be designed in such a way that it may be learnt
and operated with ease by the users. Thus the design should be user oriented.
2. Flexibility:- the business organization are dynamic in nature. Therefore a system
must be responsive to the change inevitable requested by its users.
3. Efficiency :- a system must be efficient i.e. It should perform jobs within their
specified time. The efficiency of a system may be measured in terms of the
following parameters.
i. Throughput :- it is the ability to handle a specified number of jobs per unit of time.
ii. Response time:- the ability to respond to a request made by the user within a given time
limit.
iii. Run time:- it is the ability to undertake the complete job within a given time limit.
4. Security :- this aspect relates to hardware reliability, physical security of data and
detection and prevention of fraud and abuse of data.
system design is carried out at two levels, namely conceptual level and physical level,
known as conceptual design and physical design. These two phases are also
called external design or general design and internal design or detailed design.

Conceptual design
It is in the conceptual design stage that alternative overall MIS design are conceived
and the best one is selected by the system analyst in consultation with the top
management. In the conceptual design the feasibility of the meeting the
management objective for MIS is assessed and a board brush picture of the
system is painted. That is why conceptual design is also known as gross design ,
high level design or and overall MIS design, which becomes the basis for MIS
design. In other words the conceptual design is necessary for detail analysis.
 Conceptual designs involve the following steps:-
i. Define problem
ii. Set system objective
iii. Identify the constraints
iv. Determine information needs
v. Determine information sources
vi. Develop various designs
vii. Document and conceptual design
viii.Prepare reports

i. Define problem:- first step in conceptual is to clearly understand and define the
problem to be solved. These are not only the current problems, which are of
concern rather MIS design should be related to long-term planning for the
organization so as to solve future problems. MIS function is supposed to solve
the problem relating to information needs of the business organization. Thus
information needs of the organization are to be identified and understood in this
step , which can be understanding the mission, objectives and strategic and
operating plans for the organization.
ii. Set system objectives:- after understanding and defining the next step is to set
the objective . While setting the objectives it must e kept in mind value of
information system lies in benefit to the user. Thus mere efficiency of the system
doesn‟t serve any purpose. It should be in quantitative rather than qualitative
terms.
iii. Identify constraints:- system constraints are also known as problem boundaries
or restrictions. It helps the designer to consider the limitations that restrict the
design of system. In the light of constraints a constant review of objective is
necessary. Thus establishing constraints will help ensure that the design is
realistic. System constraints may be classified into two categories :-
a) External constraints :- are external to the organization
b) Internal constraints:- posed from within the organization

iv. Determine information needs:- for a good design of information system it is

very important to know the real information needs of the management in clear
statement. For determination of information needs user should specify:-
a) What they want out of an information system
b) Item of information that are needed to achieve the pre-determined objectives
User managers are rarely specific on the above points thus the system analyst has to
adopt either the direct or indirect approach for eliciting information needs.
In the direct approach:- the system analyst would ask four or five major responsibilities
of the user- manager followed by one or two specific items of information that are
required to carry out each of the responsibilities.
In the indirect approach:- it stresses on the avoidance of direct questions. Instead the
system analyst asks the users to describe his/her decision making process. There are
various ways to gather the information , system analyst has to take the judicious
decision regarding an approach or a combination of approach to understand clearly the
information needs of user-managers in an organization.

5. Determine information sources:- information needs is the basis for MIS design ,
the source of information require to be determined to identify input data along with
identification of its source, timing and format etc.
a system analyst should clearly understand that in this step, structure of new system
start to take shape and thus he should not only determine the information sources
for a particular sub system under consideration but also take into account how they
fit into the overall source of information and technique of analysis .
 Source of information can be classified as:-
i. Internal and external records:- the internal records may be written from files,
inputs and outputs , correspondence , reports ,documentation of present or
planned system etc. Whereas external source may include trade publications ,
government statistics etc.
ii. Manager and operating personnel:- user managers and operating personnel may
be an important source for understanding input, output and data processing
requirements of an information system. However gathering data from this source
involves interviewing the manager and operating personnel which require proper
planning and skill.
6. Develop various design:-
 Tools for data analysis:-
System analysis the top down approach in which system analyst defines the inputs
,process and outputs. Structured analysis offer a graphic model to represent information
flow. The tools of structured analysis have certain new goals to be achieved such as:-
Use graphic whenever required to communicate effectively with the user.
It differentiate between logical and physical system.
It builds a logical system model by which the user is going to be familiarized with the
system characteristic and interrelationship among various subsystem before
implementation.

The output of this phase is a new document called system specification. This document
provides the basis for design and implementation of Management information system.
The main tools of System analysis are:-
1. Data flow diagram
2. Data dictionary
3. Decision table
Data flow diagram:- it is also known as “bubble chart”. It is a primary tool in structured
analysis that shows how data flow to, from and with in a management information
system and the process that transform the data into information. A DFD consist of a
series of bubbles joined by lines. Each bubbles represent data transformation and the
lines represent data flow in the system.
Data flow diagrams are constructed with the help of 4 basic symbols:-
1. A square identifies a source and a destination of system data.
2. An arrow identifies data flow ie data in motion. It is a pipeline through which
information flows.
3. A rounded box or bubble represent a process that transform in coming data flow into
outgoing data flows.
4. An open rectangle is data store, it is known as temporary repository of the data.

Rules to construct data flow diagram:-

1. Process should be name and numbered and each name should represent the
process.
2. The direction of flow is either from top to bottom or from left to right. If we want to
show flow back to the source of previously entity there are two ways one is to draw a
long flow line back to the source or second is to repeat the source symbol as
destination.
3. If a process is further divided into lower level, it would also be numbered.
4. The name of data source, destinations, data stores should be in capital letter.
5. Sublevel should not exceed 10 processes. Beyond this it is advisable to take up
each function separately.
S. Advantages Disadvantages
No.
1 It shows data flow and process Data flow diagram has larger number
simultaneously. of iteration that are often required to
arrive at the most accurate and
complete solution.
2. Data flow diagram is quite effective It does not show input and output
tool especially when required design details
is unclear and user and analyst needs
a notional language to communicate
3. Data flow diagram is easy to Name of the data flow, processes
understand after a brief orientation and data store does not contain
details.
Data flow diagram:- it is also known as “bubble chart”. It is a primary tool in structured
analysis that shows how data flow to, from and with in a management information
system and the process that transform the data into information. A DFD consist of a
series of bubbles joined by lines. Each bubbles represent data transformation and the
lines represent data flow in the system.
Data flow diagrams are constructed with the help of 4 basic symbols:-
1. A square identifies a source and a destination of system data.
2. An arrow identifies data flow ie data in motion. It is a pipeline through which
information flows.
3. A rounded box or bubble represent a process that transform in coming data flow into
outgoing data flows.
4. An open rectangle is data store, it is known as temporary repository of the data.

Rules to construct data flow diagram:-

1. Process should be name and numbered and each name should represent the
process.
2. The direction of flow is either from top to bottom or from left to right. If we want to
show flow back to the source of previously entity there are two ways one is to draw a
long flow line back to the source or second is to repeat the source symbol as
destination.
3. If a process is further divided into lower level, it would also be numbered.
4. The name of data source, destinations, data stores should be in capital letter.
5. Sublevel should not exceed 10 processes. Beyond this it is advisable to take up
each function separately.
S. Advantages Disadvantages
No.
1 It shows data flow and process Data flow diagram has larger number
simultaneously. of iteration that are often required to
arrive at the most accurate and
complete solution.
2. Data flow diagram is quite effective It does not show input and output
tool especially when required design details
is unclear and user and analyst needs
a notional language to communicate
3. Data flow diagram is easy to Name of the data flow, processes
understand after a brief orientation and data store does not contain
details.
 2. Data Dictionary:- Data dictionary is a supplement to data flow diagram. It is a
place where we keep the details of the contents of data flow, processes and data
store. A data dictionary is structured repository about data. A more comprehensive
way to definition of data dictionary is that it describes data and its characteristics
such as location, size and type. It identifies the origin, use, ownership and method
of accessing and securing the data.

Data Name Data type Minimum Maximum Data Location Access

Length Length
Customer Alphabetic 5 25 File A Common
Name
Customer ID Alpha-numeric 2 9 File A Common

While constructing a data dictionary the system analyst should consider the
following rules
1. Each data flow in data flow diagram has one data dictionary entry.
2. Definitions must be readily accessible by name
3. There should be no redundancy in data definition
4. The procedure for writing definition should be precise.
 The data dictionary has certain advantages and disadvantages

S. Advantages
No.
1 It is a valuable reference
2. Improves analyst/user communication
by establishing consistent definitions of
various data flow, data store and
processes
3. Serves as a common base for
programmers to compare data
description at the time of implementation
Disadvantages
It does not provide functional details
Without proper co-ordination with data
flow diagram the data dictionary does
not serve the purpose for which it is
constructed.

4. It is important to built data bases.

5. Each data element is cross-referenced
in data dictionary which help in
controlling information.
 3. Decision tree:- a decision tree is graphical representation of logic in decision
making process and the sequence of decision point that constitutes the decision. It
has many branches as there is logical alternatives. It simply sketches the logical
structure based on the stated policy.

8 or more 30%
Book shops
Discount Less than 8 nil
policy 51 or more 15%
libraries 26-50 10%
8-25 5%
Less than 8 Nil

A system has the following considerations while constructing a decision tree:

1. Branches of the tree should represent the various alternative available.
2. The flow should proceed from left to right.
3. The value associated with each alternative must be shown at the end of the branch.
4. All alternatives available to the decision maker should branch out from root node
which is the starting point of the decision tree.
 The major advantages and disadvantages of a decision tree are taken in

S. Advantages Disadvantages
No.
1 It is easy to construct It is not available for calculation
2. It is easy to read It does not show what other
combination of conditions to be tested.
3. It is easy to update Involve a few complex decisions
resulting in a limited number of actions.
4. Decision Table:- Decision tables or decision logic tables are also aid in
programming. Flow charts are useful so long as the problem remain simple and
straight forward. When the problem is complex and involves a large no. of
decision ,it becomes difficult to manage with flow charts.
Decision table like flow charts, claim at trying to display information clearly and at a
glance. While the flowcharts deal with the complete problem, the decision tables
depict the logic of only that part of the problem which involves
decision/condition.

The steps to be followed to construct a decision table:-

1. Properly define the problem that has to be solved by computer.
2. List all conditions to be tested in the problem.
3. List all the corresponding action to be taken according to each combination of
the coordination.
4. Form a decision using the two lists.
 TABLE HEADING DECISION RULES
CONDITION STUB CONDITION ENTRIES
ACTION STUB ACTION ENTRIES

S. Advantages Disadvantages
No.
1 They are easier to draw and change It depicts only the decision condition
2. The provide more compact They are more time consuming
documentation. A small table can
replace several number of pages
3. It is also easier to follow a particular path
down one column than through several
statement.
 Implementation of MIS
Once the development of MIS is complete it is ready for implementation.
Implementation is a process of installing a newly developed MIS at the user‟s
premises and continuously getting the output it was designed to generate. In
other words it is the process of converting from an old system to new system. The
new system may be replacement of a manual system or a major modification to
an already existing computer based information system. Thus implementation
means putting the new system into operation.
Implementation process:- implementation of MIS is a process in itself and involves
various steps. The major steps are based on the design specification. All
requirements of the system such as input, processing , output, equipment ,
personnel etc are provided by the design specifications however the steps are not
sequentially exclusive some of the steps overlap. The various steps are:-

Planning the implementation:- the first step in the implementation of an MIS is to

plan it . For proper implementation the plan is a pre-requisite and is known as
pre-implementation activity. It is in this step that various activities which are
required for implementing a system are identified and their sequence and relation
to each other Is decided.
2. Acquisition of facilities and space planning:- the information system to be
implemented may be for a new organization where no old system is in existence or
for and existing organization where the information system has been modified to a
great extent or altogether a new one has been developed. This require acquisition of
facilities like office, computer room ,computer library etc.
For proper implementation of the system the MIS manager is required to prepare
estimates of floor space planning should take into account the space occupied by
computers ,terminals, printer etc as also by people and their movement. the number
and type of exists, storage area air conditioning location of utilities, safety and
security factors also affect the layout and location of the computer room.
3. MIS organization and procedure development:- it is also important that
manager be given the responsibility of guiding the task of implementation. The so
appointed MIS manager must make the role of line managers/ users clear and
ensure their involvement in the system to the maximum extent possible . In other
words the user should develop a feeling as if system is their own system. It will help
to manage users resistance to change and increase their acceptance . The various
activities include evaluating and selecting hardware, buying or developing software
implementation strategies, testing of the system etc.
4. User training:- Adequate user training is very important for successfully
implementing an information system. The users may be identified and classified
differently on the basis of the operation/ functions performed by them/ the MIS
manager must design training programmes as per the needs of the users. Proper user
training is an important factor in promoting the required culture and thus evolving the
acceptance of the new system which is necessary for successful implementation.

5. Acquisition of hardware and software:- the process of acquiring the necessary

hardware and software should in fact start immediately after the design specifications
of the system are over. As selecting hardware and software may be quite complex and
time consuming. It should be ensured that the facilities which are required for installing
the hardware such as site preparation work, computer room layout, air conditioning ,
electric connections to avoid loss of time in making the system operational. At this
stage consumables like ribbons, paper , floppies etc should also be acquired or order
placed as required.

6. Creation of forms and database:- forms are very important for transmitting data.
They are also required for input to the system and output from the system. For
implementation of MIS the required forms should be generated in the context of the
entire MIS. Moreover forms being the key user interfaces becomes all the more
Important in the general acceptance of the system. Similarly in the implementation
stage the actual data should be obtained and database created which is used in the
first instance for the initial testing and hen for the actual operation of the information
system.

7. Testing:- test should be performed in accordance with the test specification at

each and every phase. However it is more important at implementation because
testing at this stage is done under real operating conditions with factual data.
Testing can be done with only a small representative tool but it should be
redistributed at various level, starting from element to sub system and finally to the
system as a whole. The element may include equipment forms, programs, work
procedure and format etc may be tested relatively independently of the system to
which they belong. These test are performed mainly for accuracy, range of inputs,
frequency of inputs, operating conditions and reliability etc. testing of information
system nowadays can be undertaken with the help of computer aided software
engineering (CASE) tools. These tools provide for online debugging for correcting
program and data errors.
8. Changeover:-changeover is the event of switch over from the old system to new
system which takes place after the system is tested and found reliable. The existing
system is replaced be the new system in this phase.
 Difference between Conceptual design and Detailed Design
S. Conceptual Design
No.
1 It gives a structural and overall
performance specification
2. The input for conceptual design is a
statement of Management information
requirement and objectives of
management information system
3. Conceptual design ends from where
detailed designing of the proposed
system starts.
4. Conceptual design provides the
structure
Detailed Design
It gives operational and construction
specification
The input of a detailed design are
conceptual design reports.
Conceptual design provides base to
detailed design i.e. the input of
conceptual design is used in the
detailed design.
Detailed design makes that structure
operational.
 Detailed design
In order to make a detailed design first of all the system designer have to gain the
support of all he staff members from the top to bottom level. To seek their
acceptance it is better to involve them in the designing process.
The designer uses four source for the design of the management information system.
They are task force meeting for a larger system an interview with the top,
intermediate level manager and a selected group of operating staff, study the
internal and external source document and at last personal observation of
operations and communications.
The detailed design is done for the areas of designing user interface, data design and
process design.

User Interface Design

The user interface design activity is related to facilitate the interaction between the
user and their computer based application. This involves :-
1. On which operating system the Management information system should be
based.
2. Concentrate on the design of attractive and efficient forms of user input and
output.
3. Design method of converting source document into object document means
converting human understandable form to machine understandable language.
This activity produce the detailed design specification for information product like
display screen, forms, document and reports.

Data design
1. It includes the design of structure of databases i.e. what type of specific data
element is carried.
2. Entities and their characteristics.
3. The relationship these entities have with each other.
4. The integrity rules, i.e. how data is maintained and used in information system.

Process design
It involves the design of process i.e. the design of software programs, procedure
needed by information system. At this stage the developer has to decide about the
detailed specification of software, that is either software has to purchased or
developed or it is purchased and modified according to the proposed system
requirement.
The product of this stage is known as System specification means the details of the
proposed system.
Strategic Planning:- is an organizations\‟s process of defining its strategy or direction
and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy including its
capital and people. Various business analysis techniques can be used in strategy
planning, including SWOT analysis (Strength, Weaknesses , Opportunities and
Threats) and PEST analysis (Political , Economic, Social and Technological analysis)
or STEER analysis involving Socio-cultural , Technological, Economic, Ecological and
Regulatory factor.