Sampling

Salam Abdallah, PhD

MGT524

Survey elements

Basic terms and concepts:

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Population: the universe of units from which the sample is to be selected
Sample: the segment of population that is selected for investigation
Sampling frame: list of all units e.g. If all the workers in a factory make

a population, a single worker is a unit of the population. If all the

factories in a country are being studied for some purpose, a single
factory is a unit of the population of factories. The sampling frame
contains all the units of the population. It is to be defined clearly as to
which units are to be included in the frame.
The frame provides a base for the selection of the sample.
The sampling frame operationally defines the target population from
which the sample is drawn and to which the sample data will be
generalized.
Representative sample: a sample that reflects the population accurately
Sample bias: distortion in the representativeness of the sample

Basic terms and concepts:

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Probability sample: sample selected using random
selection
Non-probability sample: sample selected not using
random selection method
Sampling error: difference between sample and
population
Non-sampling error: are the unpredictable errors
resulting from poor estimation or Non-response: when
members of sample are unable or refuse to take part
Systematic errorsare those errors that tend to
accumulate over the entire sample. For example, if there
is an error in the questionnaire design, this could cause
problems with the respondent's answers, which in turn,
can create processing errors, etc. These types of errors
often lead to a bias in the final results.
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Census: data collected from entire population

SAMPLING BREAKDOWN

Sampling error
Difference between sample and population
Biased sample does not represent population
some groups are over-represented; others are
under-represented

sources of bias

non-probability sampling, inadequate sample

frame, non-response

Probability sampling reduces sampling error

and allows for inferential statistics

Probability sampling
The four stage process
1. Identify sampling frame from research
objectives
2. Decide on a suitable sample size
3. Select the appropriate technique and the
sample
4. Check that the sample is representative

4 types of probability
sample
1. Simple random sample
2. Systematic sample
3. Stratified random
sample
4. Multi-stage cluster
sample

Sample size
Choice of sample size is influenced by

Confidence needed in the data

Margin of error that can be tolerated
Types of analyses to be undertaken
Size of the sample population and
distribution

Simple random sampleing

Each unit has an equal probability of selection
Sampling fraction: n/N
where n = sample size and N = population size
List all units and number them consecutively
Use random numbers table to select units

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Simple random sampleing

Example we want to conduct a survey to
measure the levels training, skill development
and learning among employees. And we selected
a company that has 9000 employees. Surveying
the whole population may not be feasible.
Decide your sample size e.g. 450
Number all the employees from 1 to 9000
450/9000 i.e 1 in 20
Generate 450 random numbers using random
number generators, the numbers generated will
the numbers given to represent the employees
to be surveyed:
http://www.psychicscience.org/random.aspx
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Systematic sampleing
Select units directly from sampling frame
From a random starting point, choose every nth unit
(e.g. every 4th name)
a starting point is chosen at random , choose every nth
unit , and choices thereafter are at regular intervals. For
example, suppose you want to sample 450 employees
from 9000. 9000/450=20, so every 20 employee is
chosen after a random starting point between 1 and 20.
If the random starting point is 16, then the employees
selected are 16, 36, 56, 76, 96, 116, etc.
Make sure sampling frame has no inherent ordering if
it has, rearrange it to remove bias

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Stratified random
sampling
Starting point is to categorise population into strata
(relevant divisions, or departments of companies for
example) i.e. stratifying the population by criterion,
Five departments, will result in 5 strata
So the sample can be proportionately
representative of each stratum
Then, randomly select within each category as for
a simple random sample
This approach will ensure the resulting sample will
be distributed in the same as the population
We can also stratify by several criteria, i.e. by both
department and gender and whether or not
employees are above or below a certain salary
level or occupational grade.
Note we can only stratify the sample if we have
the relevant information accessible.

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Stratified sampling an example

Using sampling fraction of of 1 in 20, we would

expect to have 90 employees in our sample from
this department of the company.
However,
because of sampling error, it is unlikely that this we
will occur and that there will be a difference, so
that there my be, say 85 or 93 from this
department.

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TATISTICAL SAMPLING

Sample size
required from
a population
5,000 given a
95%
confidence
level for 2.5
margin of
error you
need a
sample size
of 1176

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Multi-stage cluster
sampleing
Useful for widely dispersed populations
First, divide population into groups (clusters) of
units, like geographic areas, or industries,
for example
Sub-clusters (sub-groups) can then be sampled
from these clusters, if appropriate
Now randomly select units from each
(sub)cluster
Collect data from each cluster of units,
consecutively

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Primary

Secondary

Clusters

Clusters

Simple Random Sampling within Secondary Clusters

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Multi-stage cluster
sampleing
Example: We want a nationally
representative sample of 5,000 employees
who are working for the 100 largest
companies in the UK.
Problem: Using simple random or
systematic sampling would yield a widely
dispersed sample, which would result in a
great deal of travel for interviewers.
One solution to sample companies and then
employees from each company. We
randomly sample ten companies from the
entire population of 100 largest companies
in the UK, resulting in ten clusters, and we
would then interview 500 randomly selected

Qualities of a probability
sample
Good Representative Sampleallows for generalization from
sample to population
Use inferential statistical tests
to generalize
Sample means can be used to
estimate population means
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Sample size
Absolute size matters more than
relative size
The larger the sample, the more
precise and representative it is likely
to be
As sample size increases, sampling
error decreases
Important to be honest about the
limitations of your sample
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Factors affecting sample

size: 1
Time and cost
after a certain point (n=1000), increasing
sample size produces less noticeable gains
in precision
very large samples are not cost-efficient

Non-response
response rate = % of sample who agree to
participate (or % who provide usable data)
responders and non-responders may differ
on a crucial variable

Factors affecting sample

size: 2
Heterogeneity of the population
the more varied the population is, the
larger the sample will have to be

Kind of analysis to be carried out

some techniques require large sample
(e.g. inferential statistics)

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Types of non-probability
sampling: 1
1. Convenience sampling
the most easily accessible individuals
useful when piloting a research instrument
may be a chance to collect data that is too good
to miss

2. Snowball sampling
researcher makes initial contact with a small
group
these respondents introduce others in their
network
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Types of non-probability sampling: 2

3. Quota sampling
often used in market research and opinion polls
relatively cheap, quick and easy to manage
proportionately representative of a populations
social categories (strata)
but non-random sampling of each stratums units
interviewers select people to fit their quota for
each category, so the sample may be biased
towards those
who appear friendly and
accessible (e.g. in the street), leading to underrepresentation of less accessible groups

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Limits to generalization
findings can only be generalized to
the population from which the
sample was selected
be wary of over-generalizing in terms of
locality

time, historical events and cohort

effects
results may no longer be relevant and
so require updating (replication)
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Error in survey research

Sampling error
unavoidable difference between sample and
population

Sampling-related error
inadequate sampling frame; non-response
makes it difficult to generalize findings

Data collection error

implementation of research instruments
e.g. poor question wording in surveys

Data processing error

faulty management of data, e.g. coding errors

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