Chapter 4

DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)

General concept
Single-phase inverter
Harmonics
Modulation
Three-phase inverter

DC to AC Converter (Inverter)

DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by

switching the DC input voltage (or current) in a
pre-determined sequence so as to generate AC
voltage (or current) output.

General block diagram

IDC
+
VDC

Iac

+
Vac

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial
(induction motor) drives, Traction, HVDC

Simple square-wave inverter (1)

To illustrate the concept of AC waveform

generation
SQUA RE-WA VE
INVERTER
T3

T1
D1

D3
+ VO -

V DC

IO
T4

T2
D2

EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
S1

S3

S4

S2

D4

AC Waveform Generation
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF

for t1 < t < t2

vO

S1
VDC

VDC

S3

+ vO

t1

S4

t2

S2

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF

for t2 < t < t3

vO

S1
VDC

S3
t2

+ vO
S4

S2
-VDC

t3

AC Waveforms
INVERTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Vdc

-Vdc
FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
V1

V1
3

V1
5

4VDC

3RD HARMONIC

5RD HARMONIC

Harmonics Filtering
DC SUPPLY

INVERTER

(LOW PASS) FILTER

LOAD

L
+
vO 1

BEFORE FILTERING
vO 1

+
vO 2

AFTER FILTERING
vO 2

Output of the inverter is chopped AC voltage with

zero DC component. It contain harmonics.
An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at
the inverter output to reduce the high frequency
harmonics.
In some applications such as UPS, high purity sine
wave output is required. Good filtering is a must.
In some applications such as AC motor drive, filtering
is not required.

Variable Voltage Variable

Frequency Capability
Vdc2

Higher input voltage

Higher frequency

Vdc1

Lower input voltage

Lower frequency
T1

T2

Output voltage frequency can be varied by period

of the square-wave pulse.
Output voltage amplitude can be varied by varying
the magnitude of the DC input voltage.
Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction motor
drive

Output voltage harmonics/

distortion

Harmonics cause distortion on the output voltage.

Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very

difficult to filter, due to the filter size and high filter
order. They can cause serious voltage distortion.

Why need to consider harmonics?

Sinusoidal waveform quality.
Power Quality issue.
Harmonics may cause degradation of
equipment. Equipment need to be de-rated.

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to

determine the quality of a given waveform.

Fourier Series

Study of harmonics requires understanding of wave

shapes. Fourier Series is a tool to analyse wave
shapes.

Fourier Series
1 2
ao f (v)d (" DC" term)
0
1 2
an f (v) cos n d
0

(" cos" term)

1 2
bn f (v) sin n d
0

("sin" term)

Inverse Fourier

1
f (v) ao an cos n bn sin n
2
n 1
where t

Harmonics of square-wave (1)

Vdc

=t

-Vdc

1
ao Vdc d Vdc d 0
0

Vdc
an
cos n d cos n d 0
0

Vdc
bn

sin n d sin n d

Harmonics of square wave (2)

Solving,
V

2
bn dc cos n 0 cos n
n
Vdc
(cos 0 cos n ) (cos 2n cos n )

n
Vdc
(1 cos n ) (1 cos n )

n
2V
dc (1 cos n )
n

When n is even, cos n 1

bn 0
(i.e. even harmonics do not exist)
When n is odd, cos n 1
4Vdc
bn
n

Quasi-square wave (QSW)

Vdc

-Vdc

Note that an 0. (due to half - wave symmetry)

1
2Vdc

bn 2
V
sin
n

cos
n

dc

2Vdc
cos n cos n

n
Expanding :
cos n cos n n
cos n cos n sin n sin n cos n cos n
2V
bn dc cos n cos n cos n
n
2Vdc

cos n 1 cos n
n

Harmonics control
If n is even, bn 0,
4Vdc
If n is odd, bn
cos n
n
In particular, amplitude of the fundamental is :
4Vdc
b1
cos

Note :
The fundamental , b1 , is controlled by varying
Harmonics can also be controlled by adjusting ,
Harmonics Elimination :
For example if 30o , then b3 0, or the third
harmonic is eliminated from the waveform. In
general, harmonic n will be eliminated if :
90 o

Half-bridge inverter (1)

S1 ON
Vdc S2 OFF

+
VC1
Vdc

S1
V +
o

G
+
VC2
-

RL
S2

Vdc
2

S1 OFF
S2 ON

Also known as the inverter leg.

Basic building block for full bridge, three phase and
higher order inverters.
G is the centre point.
Both capacitors have the same value. Thus the DC link
is equally spilt into two.
The top and bottom switch has to be complementary,
i.e. If the top switch is closed (on), the bottom must be
off, and vice-versa.

Single-phase, full-bridge (1)

Full bridge (single phase) is built from two halfbridge leg.

The switching in the second leg is delayed by 180

degrees from the first leg.

LEG R

VRG
Vdc
2

LEG R'

+
+

Vdc
2

S1

Vdc

S3
Vo -

R'

+
Vdc
2

VR 'G
Vdc
2

Vdc
2

Vdc
2
Vo
Vdc

S4

S2

Vo V RG VR 'G
G is " virtual groumd"
Vdc

Three-phase inverter

Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by 120

degrees.

A three-phase inverter with star connected load is

shown below

+Vdc
+
Vdc/2
G

S1

S3

+
Vdc/2

S5

iR

iY

S4

B
iB

S6

ZR

ia

S2

ib

ZY
N

ZB

Three phase inverter waveforms

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Modulating Waveform

1
M1

Carrier waveform

1
Vdc
2
0

t0 t1 t 2

t3 t4 t5

Vdc
2

Triangulation method (Natural sampling)

Amplitudes of the triangular wave (carrier) and
sine wave (modulating) are compared to obtain
PWM waveform. Simple analogue comparator
can be used.
Basically an analogue method. Its digital
version, known as REGULAR sampling is
widely used in industry.

PWM types
Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown on
previous slide)
Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift,
sensitivity etc.

Regular sampling
simplified version of natural sampling that
results in simple digital implementation

Optimised PWM
PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.

Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM

PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate
some undesirable harmonics from the output
waveform spectra.
Highly mathematical in nature

Space-vector modulation (SVM)

A simple technique based on volt-second that is
normally used with three-phase inverter motordrive

Modulation Index, Ratio

Modulating Waveform

1
M1

Carrier waveform

Vdc
2
0

t0 t1 t 2

t3 t4 t5

Vdc
2

Modulation Index (Modulation Depth) M I :

Amplitude of the modulating waveform
MI
Amplitude of the carrier waveform
Modulation Ratio (Frequency Ratio) M R ( p )
MR p

Frequency of the carrier waveform

Frequency of the modulating waveform

Modulation Index, Ratio

Modulation Index deterrmines the output
voltage fundamental component
If 0 M I 1,
V1 M I Vin
where V1 , Vin are fundamental of the output
voltage and input (DC) voltage, respectively.

Modulation ratio determines the incident (location)

of harmonics in the spectra.
The harmonics are normally located at :
f kM R f m
where f m is the frequency of the modulating signal
and k is an integer (1,2,3...)

Regular sampling
h( x) if ( k ( x) c ( x) 1 if ( k ( x) c ( x) 1 0) )

t1 t2

Sinusoidal modulating
waveform, vm(t)

1
Carrier, vc(t)

Regular sampling waveform, vs (t )

t'1

t'2

v pwm

Regular sampling PWM

Asymmetric and symmetric

regular sampling
T
1

M1 sin mt

sample
point

3T
4

T
4

5T
4

Vdc
2

asymmetric
sampling

t0

t1

t2

t3

t
symmetric
sampling

V
dc
2

Generating of PWM waveform regular sampling

Bipolar Switching

Modulating Waveform

1
M1

1
Vdc
2
0

Vdc
2

t 0 t1 t 2

t3 t 4 t 5

Carrier waveform

Unipolar switching

1
A

Carrier waveform B

(a)
S1

(b)
S3

(c)

V pwm

(d)

Unipolar switching scheme

Bipolar PWM switching: Pulsewidth characterization

modulating
waveform

carrier
waveform

kth
pulse

1k

2k

Three-phase harmonics

For three-phase inverters, there is significant

advantage if MR is chosen to be:
Odd: All even harmonic will be eliminated
from the pole-switching waveform.
triplens (multiple of three (e.g. 3,9,15,21, 27..):
All triplens harmonics will be eliminated from
the line-to-line output voltage.

By observing the waveform, it can be seen that with

odd MR, the line-to-line voltage shape looks more
sinusoidal.

As can be noted from the spectra, the phase voltage

amplitude is 0.8 (normalised). This is because the
modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage amplitude
is square root three of phase voltage due to the
three-phase relationship

Effect of odd and triplens

Vdc
2

2
VRG

Vdc
2
Vdc
2

VYG

Vdc
2
Vdc
V RY

Vdc

p 8, M 0.6

Vdc
2

V RG

Vdc
2
Vdc
2

VYG

Vdc
2

Vdc
VRY
Vdc

p 9, M 0.6
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER

Comments on PWM scheme

It is desirable to have MR as large as possible.

This will push the harmonic at higher frequencies

on the spectrum. Thus filtering requirement is
reduced.

Although the voltage THD improvement is not

significant, but the current THD will improve
greatly because the load normally has some current
filtering effect.

However, higher MR has side effects:

Higher switching frequency: More losses.
Pulse width may be too small to be constructed.
Pulse dropping may be required.