Application of Microwave

COMMUNICATION AND RADAR

SYSTEM
Communication means point to point correspondence
with the help of a transmitter and a receiver through
the atmospheric layers.
Microwave communication systems are characterized
by the following factors :
(i) 0.3 GHz to 150 GHz is the useful frequency range.
(ii) Microwave signal propagation being affected by
free space attenuation.
(iii) Earth's curvature limits the line of sight
communication.
(iv) Frequency/phase modulation or spread spectrum
and line sharing techniques being utilised.

Radar System
Radar is the abbreviation of "RAdio
wave Detection And Ranging".
In this system electromagnetic energy
in the form of high power short duration
pulses are thrown to a distant object or
target and the reflected signal called
echo is received at the transmitting
station. Finally the received information
is analysed to know the location of the
target.

The block diagram of radar system is

as shown in Fig. 13.2, where a
transmitter and a receiver both are
connected to a common directional
antenna through a switch. The antenna
generally rotates to direct the radiated
beam as desired

Fig. 13.2. Basic elements of a radar system.

 If be the time taken by the pulsed signal

to move from transmitter to the target and
back, then the distance of the target is
d = C( /2 )
(13.1)
To locate the target position precisely, the
radar antenna must have the dimensions of
a few wavelength to produce sharp, narrow
beams.
Hence for short wavelengths microwave or
pulsed modulated UHF is to be used. The
power of a radar is typically few hundred
kW.

There are many applications for

radar.
Ground based radar is used for air
traffic control, sea traffic control,
weather forecasting, speed traps,
ground
probing
and
industrial
measurement.
Sea borne radars are used for
navigation and collision avoidance .
Air-borne radars are used for
navigation, and for studying weather.

Classification of Radar

Radar Range Equation

Let an isotropic radar antenna
transmitting peak value of pulsed
power PT then the power density at a
distance 'd' from the antenna will be
PT/4d2.
Since the gain of the antenna is GT
and as the antenna is directional, then
the power density at the target kept

=
at aPdistance
'd' is

 Since, S is the effective area of the

target the power incident on the target
is
Pi = PS =

Since, the power is scattered in all

directions, the power density at the
P = =
r
receiving
antenna is

If A0 be the capture area of the receiving

P = A P = the received power is
antenna,
r
0 r

As the same antenna is used as

transmitter as well as receiver, hence GT
= GR , thus the relation between GR and
the Gcapture
area is
=G =
R

Where is the wavelength. Thus equation

Pr = be modified as:
(13.5) can

For maximum range, the received power

will be minimum.

13.8

Using

equations (13.6) and (13.8) we

get:
13.9

From equation (13.9) we see that

maximum range of a radar also
depends the area of target.

Effect of noise on Radar Range Equation

From the range equation of a radar it is

clear that the range can be increased
by decreasing receivable power which
in turn depends on the sensitivity of
the receiver and hence on its noise

figure
= =
= 1+

(13.10)

Psi = Input signal power

where

Pso = Output signal power

Pni = Input noise power
Pno = Output noise power
GR = Power gain of the receiver
Pnri = Noise power generated at the
receiver input.
Thus from equation (13.10) one can write
= F-1
Pnri = Pni (F -1) = KT B0 GR (F-1)
(13.11)

where
K = Boltzmann Constant

B = Bandwidth of the receiver

and T = standard ambient temperature
The minimum receivable signal power
for the receiver is equal to the
equivalent noise power at the receiver
input; thus substituting KTB0GR
(F- 1) in the radar range equation
(13.8)

For
a parabolic antenna,
and writing for K = 1.38 x 10-23
and T=300K;
we can get a practical radar range
equation given by :
(13.12)

Basic Pulsed Radar System

A detailed block diagram of a pulsed
radar system is as shown in Fig. 13.2.
The trigger source modulator and
microwave oscillator constitute the
transmitter portion, where as the
mixer, the local oscillator, IF amplifier,
detector and the video amplifier
make up the receiver portion of the
radar.

Fig .13.2 Block diagram ofa pulsed

radar system.

The antenna, duplexer and the indicator

are common to both transmitter and
receiver.

 When the modulator is triggered by

the triggering source, it starts to
generate rectangular pulses and
total are used as the modulating
voltage for the microwave oscillator.
Pulsed operation of the oscillator
reduces the heat generation.
The duplexer allows the output of the
oscillator through the antenna for
radiation.

 In
the
receiving
mode
duplexer
connects the antenna to the receiver.
The received pulsed modulated signal is
demodulated at the mixer by super
heterodyne principle.
The IF output of the mixer is then
amplified by means of a RF amplifier
and finally fed to the detector which
recovers the pulse.
The detector output is amplified by the
video amplifier and then fed to an
indicator, or display unit.

 The trigger source is also connected

to the indicator, so that the
transmitted pulse can be displayed
as reference.
Angle data from the antenna are
additionally supplied to the indicator.

Plan Position Indicator (PPI)

This is an intensity modulation type
display system which indicates both
range and azimuth angle of the target
simultaneously in polar coordinates.
It is commonly employed in search
radars.
Here the receiver output is applied to
the control grid of CRT, which is biased
slightly beyond cut-off.

 The saw tooth waveform is applied to a

pair of coils on the opposite sides of the
neck of the tube and rotates at the same
angular speed of the antenna.
As a result the scanning beam not only
moves radially outward from the centre
and comes back quickly but also rotates
on the face of the CRT.
Thus echoes are presented as bright spot
that show the range and azimuth of the
targets in polar co-ordinates.
Thus within a desired area on the scope,
the map of the target can be presented.

Scanning and Tracking

Scanning is the way in which the antenna
keeps moving in azimuth and the elevation
to cover the area of the target. Depending
on the type of applications scanning may
be of different types, such as :
i) Horizontal scanning.
It is used to search the target in the
horizon and the radar antenna rotates
along the horizontal plane as shown in
Fig.13.3. Application of this type of
scanning is in ship to ship radar.

 ii) Nodding scan.

Here the radar antenna moves up and
rapidly,
whereas it rotates more slowly in
azimuth as shown in Fig. 13.4. lt is
used to cover the scanning of
complete hemisphere.

 iii) Helical scanning.

It is used to search the complete
hemisphere and the scan pattern. Here
the elevation of the radar antenna
increases very slowly whereas, rotates
more
rapidly
in
azimuth.
After
completion of each scanning cycle
antenna returns to the starting point.
Fig. 13. 5. Helical scan
Pattern.

(iv) Spiral scanning. The scan

pattern is as shown m Fig. 13.6. In this
method both are possible.

Tracking
Tracking means finding the path of
the target accurately, A narrow
pencil shaped beam can be used for
antenna tracking.
When the narrow pencil beam is not
sufficient for accurate tracking, then
the following auxiliary methods can
be used : -

(i) Lobe switching/sequential lobing

/sequential switching :
A narrow beam from the antenna rapidly
switched between two position around the
target as shown in Fig. 13.7.
Unless the target comes exactly midway
between the two directions, the echo signal
from the target will fluctuate.

 During switching the antenna will gradually

reduce the angle 0 and ultimately when it will
be able to locate the target, the strength of the
echo signal will be same for both the positions
(ii) Conical switching is very much similar to
switching off centred beam from a Parabolic
antenna rotated about the axis of a Parabola
as shown in Fig. 13.8.
If the target is present within the solid angle
along which the beam is rotating then the echo
signal from the target will be amplitude
modulated at a frequency equal to the rotation
at frequency of the beam.

 From the echo signal the conical scan

modulation is extracted and applied
to a servo controlled system which
positions the antenna on the target
both in azimuth and elevation and
the target is said to be tracked
accurately when the conical scan
modulation becomes zero.
The conical scanning system is
accurate both in the elevation and
the azimuth, whereas the sequential
lobing system is accurate in one
plane only.

 Two disadvantages associated with the above

two types of scanning are (a) additional
servo mechanism is required for complicated
motion of the antenna, and
(b)
as more than one return pulses are
required to locate a target; thus the effect of
both types of scanning will be largely nullified
if the target cross-section is changing
because of its change in altitude or for other
reasons, so also the echo power will change.
The ideal system should be such that with the
help of a single pulse, one must get all the
information .

 (iii) In monopulse tracking/

simultaneous lobing system four feeds
are used along with a paraboloid reflector.
Fig. 13.9 shows the arrangement. The
transmitter
feeds
all
the
horns
simultaneously so that the sum signal A+ B
+ C + D is transmitted.
In receiver a duplexer using a hybrid ring or
a rat race coupler is used to obtain the
following three signals, the sum A + B + C
+ D, the vertical difference (A + C) - (B +
D) and the horizontal difference (A + B) -(C + D).

Fig. 13.9
Monopulse
tracking
antenna
The output of the sum channel is used to provide
usual information obtained from a radar receiver,
while each of the difference signals is fed to servo
amplifier and a motor controlling the antenna so
as to keep it pointed exactly at the target.
The output of the sum channel can then be used
for automatic control of gunnery if the radar is
being used for this purpose.

 An alternative to this system; where

a large number of antennas are very
closely spaced in which the direction
of the scanning beam is varied by
changing the relative phase of the
signals fed to the different antennas.
The system is known as phased
array. Here no antenna movement is
required for scanning.

Radomes
It is a structure for sheltering
antenna and protect the antenna
from severe weather conditions like
storm, icing or at extremely high
temperature.
Thus the structure should be
mechanically strong and should not
interfere in the normal operation of
an antenna.

 Radomes are of two types - airborne

radome which is smaller in size than
its counterpart ground based
radome.
The shape of the airborne radome
should be such that it can be fitted
easily on an aircraft, missile or space
vehicle in which it is to operate.

 Generally in a radome the structure

is fixed but the antenna is steerable
whereas in a rotodomes both
antenna and radome rotates
together as a unit.
A radome can be constructed with
thin, uniform, strong and flexible
rubber like material.
A foam shelled radome uses foam
materials such as polythyrene or
polyurethane..

CW Doppler Radar
It is used to measure the speed of vehicles,
shells, guided missiles and even in the
dark and in bad weather.
But used of CW Radar is limited by the fact
that several moving object within a small
area can create a confusion.
CW transmitter oscillator generates the
transmitter signal of frequency ft and the
receiving antenna receives the reflected
signal from the target.

 Fig. 13.11. Block diagram of CW

doppler radar.

 The received signal will be shifted in

frequency from the transmitted
frequency (ft) by an amount of fd,
thus the frequency of the received
signal is ft + fd for approaching target
and ft - fd for receiving target.
Now the signal from the transmitter
mixer having a frequency of fI + ft, is
now mixed with the received signal
in the receiver mixer.

 Finally when the output of the

receiver mixer having frequency fI
fd when passes through the detector,
then the doppler frequency fd will be
determined.
Doppler radar has advantages like
low power consumption, simple
circuitry and small size.
Hence it is most use in mobile
application

Moving Target Indicator (MTI)

Radar
The operation of MTI radar is based
on doppler principle.
If the target is fixed then there will be
no difference in phase between the
transmitter pulse and the resulting
echo, but a continuous change in
phase indicates a continuous change
in position of the target.

Fig 3.12.
Block
diagram of a
MTI radar

 If
the relative velocity of two objects is
varied which is much smaller than the
velocity of light (c) then frequency ft
transmitted from one body to the other
will be changed to ft + fd) where fd' is the
doppler frequency and is given by,
fd = ft
13.13
In radar a signal undergoes fd changes in
frequency on arrival and same fd on its
return, hence the overall effect is doubled.

 Therefore,
doppler's frequency fD for the

radar is
f D = 2 . f t. =
13.14
On the basis of this change in frequency it
is possible to calculate the relative velocity
of the target and also possible to distinguish
between moving and stationary objects.
The frequency of the coherent signal is the
sum of the output of two oscillators--- the
stable oscillator (STALO) and coherent
oscillator(COHO) .

 Since mixer is not introducing any phase

and coho is used for the generation of RF
signal as well as for reference in the phase
detector,
The transmitted and reference signals are
phase locked and are said to be coherent.
Since the output of the detector phase is
sensitive, an output is obtained for all
fixed or moving targets.
The phase difference between transmitted
and received signals is constant for fixed
targets.

 Thus doppler frequency shift is

accompanied by a phase shift but the
shift is not constant due to the radial
component of velocity of the target
A portion of the output of the phase
detector is taken directly and another
through a delay line.
Then delayed and undelayed signals
are compared in the subtractor.
The output is rectified and then
displayed in the scope.