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• A collection of subsystems:
– Locomotion: how the robot moves through its
environment
– Sensing: how the robot measures properties of itself
and its environment
– Control: how the robot generate physical actions
– Reasoning: how the robot maps measurements into
actions
– Communication: how the robots communicate with
each other or with an outside operator
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Wheeled Mobile Robots
• Locomotion — the process of causing an robot to
move.
– In order to produce motion, forces must be applied to the robot
– Motor output, payload
Rolling motion
Lateral slip
where,
axis
ax : A unit vector of x
axis
ay : A unit vector of y
– Velocity of point P
where,
axis
ax : A unit vector of x
axis
ay : A unit vector of y
– Restriction to the robot mobility
– Omnidirectional property
• Degree of steerability :
0
One centered
orientable wheel
δM = δm + δs
• Kinematic
equation
θ
90 − θ
• Nonholonomic
Constraint x
[ sin θ − cos θ ] = x sin θ − y cos θ = 0
y
Physical
Meaning? 27
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Differential Drive
Kinematics model in robot frame
---configuration kinematics model
R : Radius of rotation
• Straight motion
R = Infinity VR =
VL
• Rotational motion
R= 0 VR
= -VL
3 0 2 1
3 0 2 1
: Radius of
rotation
: Length of path
: Angle of
rotation
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Tricycle
• Three wheels and odometers on the two rear wheels
• Steering and power are provided through the front wheel
• control variables:
– steering direction α(t)
– angular velocity of steering wheel ws(t)
Swedish Wheel
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Car Drive (Ackerman Steering)
• Used in motor vehicles,
the inside front wheel is
rotated slightly sharper
than the outside wheel
(reduces tire slippage).
• Ackerman steering
provides a fairly accurate
dead-reckoning solution
while supporting traction
and ground clearance.
R
• Generally the method of
choice for outdoor
autonomous vehicles.
R
where
d = lateral wheel separation
l = longitudinal wheel separation
θi = relative steering angle of inside wheel
θo = relative steering angle of outside wheel
R=distance between ICC to centerline of the vehicle
cot θ i − cot θ o
R+d /2 R−d /2
= −
l l
d
=
l
R
Y x, y
ϕ { x, y , θ , ϕ }
u1 : forward
θ
{u1 , u2 } velu 2
{τ 1 , τ 2 } vel
: steering
X
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Kinematic model for car-like robot
x = u1 cosθ
x, y
y = u1 sin θ Y
ϕ
u1
θ = tan ϕ
l θ
ϕ = u2
non-holonomic constraint:
X
x sin θ − y cosθ = 0 u1 : forward
uvelocity
2
: steering
velocity 47
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Dynamic Model
• Dynamic model Y x, y
ϕ
X
m 0 0 x sin θ cos θ 0
f1
0 m 0 y = cos θ λ + sin θ 0
f
0 0 I 0 0 2
θ
1