Data Communication and

Networking
Lecture -6
EEN-222

M. Hasan Danish Khan

Lecturer, Electrical Engineering
Bahria University, E-8 Islamabad.

Introduction
Most communication systems require the sharing of
channels
Shared media is common in cable television,
telephone systems, and data communications
Two types of combining signals are:
Multiplexing - combining signals from the same sources
Multiple-access - combining signals from multiple sources

Introduction
A communications medium can be shared equally by
dividing either quantity among users
The frequency spectrum can be divided by using:
FDM (frequency-division multiplexing)
TDM (time-division multiplexing
CDMA (code-division multiple access)
2

Cellular Networks

BSS

BSS

MSC
HLR
VLR
EIR
AC
AC =authenticationcenter
BSS =basestationsubsystem
EIR =equipmentidentityregister
HLR =homelocationregister

STP
PSTN
MSC
PSTN
STP
VLR

SS#7

wireline
terminal

=mobileswitchingcenter
=publicswitchedtelephonenetwork
=signaltransferpoint
=visitorlocationregister

Satellite System

Satellite Channel

Medium Sharing
Medium Sharing Techniques
Static
Channelization
Partitioned channels
are dedicated to
individual users, so
no collision at all.
Good for steady traffic
and achieve efficient
usage of channels

Dynamic Medium
Access Control

Scheduling

Schedule a
orderly access
of medium.
Good for heavier
traffic.

Minimize the
incidence of
collision to
achieve reasonable
usage of medium.
Good for bursty traffic.

Random Access

Try and error. if no collision,

that is good, otherwise wait a
random time, try again.
Good for light traffic.
6
Figure 6.2

he Concept of Mux/Demux

Multiplexing to refer to the combination of information

streams from multiple sources for transmission over a
shared medium
Multiplexor is a mechanism that implements the concept

Demultiplexing to refer to the separation of a combination

back into separate information streams
Demultiplexor to refer to a mechanism that implements
the concept

he Concept of Mux/Demux

Multiplexer Example

Types of Multiplexing
There are four basic approaches to multiplexing that each
have a set of variations and implementations
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
TDM and FDM are widely used
WDM is a form of FDM used for optical fiber
CDM is a mathematical approach used in cell phone
mechanisms

Frequency Division
Multiplexing
A set of radio stations/TV can transmit electromagnetic
signals simultaneously using separate carrier frequency
It is possible to send simultaneously multiple carrier waves
over a single copper wire, e.g. 24 digitized voice on a
copper wire (T-1 Carrier System)
A de-multiplexer applies a set of filters that each extract a
small range of frequencies near one of the carrier
frequencies
FDM mechanism will separate the frequency from others
without otherwise modifying the signal

Frequency Division
Multiplexing

Frequency Division
Multiplexing

Frequency Division
Multiplexing
Advantage of FDM arises from the simultaneous use of a
transmission medium by multiple pairs of entities
We imagine FDM as providing each pair with a private
transmission path
Practical FDM systems - there are some limitations
If the frequencies of two channels are too close,
interference can occur
Furthermore, de-multiplexing hardware that receives a
combined signal must be able to divide the signal into
separate carriers
Designers choosing a set of carrier frequencies with a
gap between them known as a guard band

Frequency Division
Multiplexing

15

Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM)
WDM refers to the application of FDM to optical fiber
The inputs and outputs of such multiplexing are
wavelengths of light
denoted by the Greek letter , and informally called
colors
When white light passes through a prism
colors of the spectrum are spread out
If a set of colored light beams are each directed into a prism
at the correct angle
the prism will combine the beams to form a single beam
of white light

Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM)
Prisms form the basis of optical multiplexing and
demultiplexing
a multiplexor accepts beams of light of various wavelengths
and uses a prism to combine them into a single beam
a demultiplexor uses a prism to separate the wavelengths.

Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM)

Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM assigns time slots to each channel repeatedly
multiplexing in time simply means transmitting an item
from one source, then transmitting an item from another
source, and so on

Synchronous TDM
Time slots pre-assigned to sources and fixed
Time slots allocated even if no data
Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed
amongst sources

Synchronous TDM: Problem

Synchronous TDM works well if each source produces data
at a uniform and fixed rate
In practice, a slot cannot be empty
the slot is assigned a value (such as zero)
and an extra bit is set to indicate that the value is invalid

Statistical TDM
Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically based
on demand
Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data until frame
full

Code Division Multiple Access

(CDMA)
CDMA is a technology that allows multiple users to share the
whole spectrum at all the time unlike TDMA and FDMA.
CDMA has wider bandwidth compared to TDMA & FDMA.
Each user is given a unique PN code.
Requires digital transmission

CDMA Transmitter
The transmitter multiplies the code by the data to get the
coded massage (bit)

Ck
R bps
bk (t)

RJ bps
X

Sk (t)

CDMA Receiver
The received signal is multiplied again by the same code
that used in the transmitter.

C1
RJ bps

Hard Decision

Sum over
J chips

R bps

R bps

R bps

R bps

y(t)
Ck
RJ bps

Sum over
J chips

Matched Filter

Spread Spectrum

Analog or digital data

Analog signal
Spread data over wide bandwidth
Makes jamming and interception harder
Frequency hoping
Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies

Direct Sequence
Each bit is represented by multiple bits in transmitted signal
Chipping code

Spread Spectrum Concept

Input fed into channel encoder
Produces narrow bandwidth analog signal around central
frequency

Signal modulated using sequence of digits

Spreading code/sequence
Typically generated by pseudonoise/pseudorandom number
generator

Increases bandwidth significantly

Spreads spectrum

Receiver uses same sequence to demodulate signal

Demodulated signal fed into channel decoder

General Model of Spread

Spectrum System

Pseudorandom Numbers
Generated by algorithm using initial seed
Deterministic algorithm
Not actually random
If algorithm good, results pass reasonable tests of
randomness
Need to know algorithm and seed to predict sequence

Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum (FHSS)
Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of
frequencies
Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with
transmitter
Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits

Frequency Hopping Example

Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum System (Transmitter)

Frequency Hopping Spread

Spectrum System (Receiver)

Slow and Fast FHSS

Frequency shifted every Tc seconds
Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
Slow FHSS has Tc Ts
Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
Generally fast FHSS gives improved performance in
noise (or jamming)

Slow Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum

Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)

Fast Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum

Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)

Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum (DSSS)
Each bit represented by multiple bits using spreading code
Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency
band
In proportion to number of bits used
10 bit spreading code spreads signal across 10 times bandwidth
of 1 bit code

One method:

Combine input with spreading code using XOR

Input bit 1 inverts spreading code bit
Input zero bit doesnt alter spreading code bit
Data rate equal to original spreading code

Performance similar to FHSS

Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum Example

Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum Transmitter

Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum Receiver

Direct Sequence Spread

Spectrum Using BPSK Example

Approximate
Spectrum of
DSSS Signal

ALOHA
Wireless link to provide data transfer between main
campus & remote campuses of University of Hawaii
Simplest solution: just do it
A station transmits whenever it has data to transmit
If more than one frames are transmitted, they interfere with
each other (collide) and are lost
If ACK not received within timeout, then a station picks random
backoff time (to avoid repeated collision)
Station retransmits frame after backoff time
Firsttransmission
Retransmission
BackoffperiodB
t0X

t0

t0+X

Vulnerable
period

t
t0+X+2tprop
Timeout

t0+X+2tprop+B

Slotted ALOHA
Time is slotted in X seconds slots
Stations synchronized to frame times
Stations transmit frames in first slot after frame
arrival
Backoff intervals in multiples of slots
BackoffperiodB
kX

(k+1)X

Vulnerable
period

t0+X+2tprop

t
t0+X+2tprop+B

Timeout

OnlyframesthatarriveduringpriorXsecondscollide

Slotted ALOHA
Reservation protocol allows a large number of stations
with infrequent traffic to reserve slots to transmit their
frames in future cycles
Each cycle has mini-slots allocated for making
reservations
Stations use slotted Aloha during mini-slots to request
slots
cycle
...

...

Reservation
minislots

Xsecondslot

Slotted ALOHA: Numerical

Ten thousand airline stations are competing for the use of a
single slotted ALOHA channel. The average station makes 18
requests/hour. A slot is 125 micro-sec. What is the
approximate total channel load?
Solution: Average requests for 10000 stations = 10^4 x 18 / (60 x
60) = 50 requests/sec
Average slots number = 1 / (125 x 10^-6) = 8000 slots/sec.
Total channel load = average requests / average slots number =
50 / 8000 = 0.0625
Hence, the total channel load is 0.0625 request/slot.

Carrier Sensing Multiple Access

(CSMA)

Astationsensesthechannelbeforeitstartstransmission

Ifbusy,eitherwaitorschedulebackoff(differentoptions)
Ifidle,starttransmission
Vulnerableperiodisreducedtotprop(duetochannelcaptureeffect)
Whencollisionsoccurtheyinvolveentireframetransmissiontimes
Iftprop>X(orifa>1),nogaincomparedtoALOHAorslottedALOHA
StationA;
transmissionat
t=0

StationA;
Captureschannel
att=tprop

CSMA Mode
Transmitter behavior when busy channel is sensed
1-persistent CSMA (most greedy)
Start transmission as soon as the channel becomes idle
Low delay and low efficiency

Non-persistent CSMA (least greedy)

Wait a backoff period, then sense carrier again
High delay and high efficiency

P-persistent CSMA (adjustable greedy)

Wait till channel becomes idle, transmit with prob. p; or wait one
mini-slot time & re-sense with probability 1-p
Delay and efficiency can be balanced

Sensing

CSMA with Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD)
Monitor for collisions & abort transmission
Stations with frames to send, first do carrier sensing
After beginning transmissions, stations continue
listening to the medium to detect collisions
If collisions detected, all stations involved stop
transmission, reschedule random backoff times, and
try again at scheduled times
In CSMA, collisions result in wastage of X seconds
spent transmitting an entire frame
CSMA-CD reduces wastage to time to detect collision
and abort transmission

CSMA/CD reaction time

Abeginsto
transmitat A
t=0

Adetects
collisionat A
t=2tprop

Ittakes2tproptofindoutifchannelhasbeencaptured

Bbeginsto
transmitat
t=tprop
Bdetects
collisionat
t=tprop

Thankyou!