CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK OF A

CURRICULUM

Ideological Context
Epistemological Context
Psychological Context
Sociological Context
Management Context
Evaluative Context

COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING

Ideological
Economic
Epistemologic
al
Cultural
Sosiological
Technologic
al
Psychologic
al
Historical
Philosophic
al
Micro
contexts and
constraints
Institutiona

Nature of
Influence
Power and control
of the curriculum
and educators
Values and
beliefs
Education
and economy,
control and relationship
priorities
Nature, content and
structure of knowledge
Cultural representation on
the curriculum: cultural
reproduction and
production
Equality, access to
knowledge, relationship of
education and society
Effects of technology on
the curriculum
Nature of learning and
learning environments
Causes, antecedents and
legacies of the curriculum
Justifications and aims

l
Resources

Nature, structure, values

and traditions, ethos of
the institution
Amount and organization

Students

Needs, interests, abilities

Educators

Needs, interests, abilities

Dimensions
of the
curriculum

Management and evaluation

filter

Macro
contexts and
constraints
Political

Curriculum
Outcome

Aims
Content
Pedagogy
Resources
Evaluation

Areas of
learning and
experience
Elements
of
learning
Essential
issues
Characteristic
s the
curriculum

Change
Levels of
planning

Ideological, epistemological,
philosophical,
sociological, psychological
analysis to
Determine
aims of
Situational
analysis
of schooling
school contextphilosophy, policy, practice organization
Establishing and evaluating goals
Selecting appropriate learning experiences
Organization of the learning
Evaluation and feedback
Modification

Figure: A prescriptive model of curriculum plannin

LEVELS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING MODELS

Theo
ry

Level 1:

Level 2:

Level 3:

Level 4:

Level 5:

Practic
e

Contextual
Gener
Philosophical, ideological, epistemologic
al
sociological, cultural, psychological cont
of curriculum decisions
Managerial
Substantive issues discussing the
management of curriculum planning
Conceptual
Rationales for describing and
typifying the curriculum
Strategic
Policy making, staffing and resourcing o
curriculum, role relations
Tactical
Planning curriculum implementation
Speci

fic

General
Specific
Theory
Pratice
Levels of Planning
Contextual
Strategic

Managerial
Tactical

Conceptual

Stages of Planning
Situational Anaysis
Managment
Goal Formation
Programme Building
Resources
Interpretation and
Implementation
Outcomes
Monitoring
Assessment,
Feedback,
Evaluation

Level And Stages Of Curriculum Evaluation

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Ideology, as the belief system of a group, is a
potent force in shaping social consciousness,
attitudes and values. Although operative within
the total society, ideology has a particular impact
on education and schooling.
It functions in formal educational agencies to
shape social outlooks and expectations,
In schools, ideological factors shape the school
milieu and the hidden curriculum as well as the
formal curriculum (Gutek, 1997)

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Meighan (1981) contends that an ideology
addresses seven components which concern
curriculum:

A theory of knowledge : its context and

structure what is considered worythwhile
or important, how it is organized and who
will have access to it.
A theory of learning and the learners role
an active or a passive style, doing or
listening, co-operative or competitive
learning, producing or reproducing
know;ledge , problem solving or receiving
facts.
A theory of teaching and the teachers role
formal or informal, authoritarian or
democratic, interest in outcomes or
processes, narrow or wide.

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
- A theory of resources appropriate for learning
primary or secondary
- A theory of organization of learning situations
criteria for grouping pupils.
-

A theory of assessment that learning has taken

place diagnostic or attainment testing,written
or observational assessment, defining what is to
be assessed
- A theory of aims, objectives and outcomes
a view of what is desirable for society, the
child and knowledge.

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
- Ideologies Emphasizing The Individual Learner
- Ideologies Emphasizing Knowledge
- Ideologies Emphasizing Society

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING THE

INDIVIDUAL LEARNER

Transmission of knowledge is secondary to discovery and to

following the learners impulses, needs and interests.
Stress is laid on learning by doing, spontaneity, free expression
and developing the learners own nature spontaneously,
Emphasis is placed on originality and authenticity of the
learners experience and awareness , on diversity of response
and provision, on creativity, enjoyment and the development of
emotional of the learners personality.
The process of learning is as important as the outcomes of
learning. (intrinsic worth of education)

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING
KNOWLEDGE
A strong sympathy with conservative notions of
protecting and perpetuating the best of the past
as experienced in the present.
The curriculum is academic and intellectual,
non-vocational.
Children have to be initiated into the received
wisdoms of their forbears, the initiation rites of
passage often being formal examinations.
Subject loyalty is strong, disci[line oriented and
reliant on instruction rather than experiential
learning (Lawton, 1973).

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING
KNOWLEDGE

Standards are clear, excellence of academic achievement is

emphasized, and stress is laid on the development of
rationality through a curriculum marked by uniformity
rather than diversity (Jenkins, 1975).
This curriculum runs counter to social justice and equity of
opportunity (Lawton, 1983).
For the masses who cannot aspire to this, a folk
curriculum (Bantock, 1975;1976) is offered whose resukt is
to effectively debar them from entering the corridors of
privilege, providing what is often regarded as low status,
practical, vocational and everyday knowledge.
Ideologies in this area, then, emphasize a dual curriculum
(Scrinshaw, 1976).

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING
KNOWLEDGE
Alternative Ideology: A knowledge-based
curriculum whose emphasis is less on a stratified
than on a unified society, with egalitarian
principles at its core. In liberal humanism high
culture is to be accessible to all through a
common curriculum.
For curriculum planners the significance of
debates, about knowledge is to clarify which
knowledge should be in the curriculum, how it
should be organized and who should have access
to it.

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING
SOCIETY
Instrumental Ideologies instrumentalism,
revisionism, and those stressing economic renewal
emphasize the need for education to fit learners
to society, particularly in economic terms.
Education thus exists to provide a skilled
workforce to expand the nations economic
strength. Weight is laid on the relevance and
utility aspects of education.
The intentions of education are not to alter
radically existing society, rather to improve the
efficiency of existing organizations, isnstitutions
and economic structures.

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING
KNOWLEDGE
Radical society-oriented educational
ideologies aiming at social rebuilding or social
upheaval.
Reconstruction planned change rather than
stability. what society ought to be rather than
what it is.
Theory of knowledge is revolutionary, problemsolving, active, socially relevant

EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONTEXT

It is concerned with knowledge its form and structure.

What do we mean by knowledge?

What are the sources of knowledge?

How can we achieve knowledge?

What are the means and activities that

we can offer that so that the students can
achieve knowledge ?
How can we ascertain that our students have acquired and
mastered

1. What do we mean by knowing ?

Ryle (1949) : Knowing that and knowing

Knowing that is concerned with what can be stated in

propositions and facts.
The weakness of knowing that is its lack of utility: we may
know the theory of something but not the why or how of it.
knowing how: understanding, possessing capacity to
perform in practical situations.
2. Dichotomy: Knowledge reached through reasoning
or senses? While rationality might be one way of
achieving knowledge, there are some types of knowledge
which are not available through rationality alone
sensory knowledge.

CONTENT
Content

is the essential
concepts and topics covered
during a month.

Content

is written beginning
with a noun.

CONTENT
EXAMPLES
Cultural

diversity
Water cycle
Bridge to Terabithia
Local Government Systems
Fire Safety

SKILLS
Skills

are key abilities and

processes students will develop
related to specific content.

Skills

are written beginning with

a verb.

SKILLS EXAMPLES
Reading

a map
Writing a play
Analyzing non-fiction text
Writing persuasive essays
Matching words and pictures

EMPIRICIST VIEW OF KNOWLEDGE

Empiricism is premised on the notion that
knowledge is only acquired through the sensory
experience and reflection on perceptions.
For the empiricist knowledge must correspond to
the observed facts of the case.
Implications?
i. Objectivity or universal validity of knowledge is
is replaced by a version of knowledge which sees
it as unique, tied to specific contexts; a far more
tentative, hypothetical and evolutionary version.
Knowledge is subject to constant modification
and obsolesence.

EMPIRICIST VIEW OF KNOWLEDGE

ii. Knowledge becomes equated with experince.

iii. Teaching styles will have to be revised to

reflect the tentative view of knowledge, to resist
the imposition of knowledge in favour of the
creation and discovery of knowledge a more
problem-solving, discovery approach,
iv. Teaching will have to move to a process rather
than a product view of knowledge, concentrating
on skills of acquiring knowledge rather than
outcomes. Knowledge is to be tested rather than
passively accepted (Brumer, 1970)

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Necessary to have a clear understanding of how
learning takes placed and how it can be best
promoted through teaching and learning styles/
The foci of psychological theory comprehend:
1. The nature of the learner
a. cognitive and affective aspects
b. Individual differences
c. Individual needs

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTEXT
2. The nature of the learning process
a. learning theories
- behaviorist theories
- cognitive theories
- constructivist theories
- humanistic theories
b. motivation
c. active learning
d. reinforcement and feedback, etc.

Computationalism
Information processing,
organizing and managing
well-informed flow of
information.
Culturalism
Hermeneutic meaning
making, how human
beings in cultural
communities
Bruner
create
(1996) and

26

Overview of Theories Affecting Curriculum Field

THEORY

AUTHOR(S)

TYPE OF THEORY

CLASSIC
CASE

FUNCTION

Curriculum as systematic
activity, as management

Bobbitt,
Charters

Curriculum theory

Scientific

To explain,
describe

Curriculum as reflecting the

stages of human development

Dewey

Curriculum theory

Scientific

To explain,
prescribe

Curriculum as praxis

Maccia

Curriculum theory

Scientific

To guide,
prescribe

Curriculum as unintended
series of learning outcome

Johnson

Curriculum theory

Scientific

To describe

Curriculum as interacting
system

MacDonald

Curriculum theory

Scientific

To describe,
explain

Curriculum as metaphor

Kliebard,
Freire

Curriculum theory

Humanistic

To prescribe

Curriculum as experience for

social purpose

Pinar

Curriculum theory

Humanistic

To prescribe

Education as process, as
structuring knowledge

Bruner

Instructional theory

Scientific

To explain,
prescribe

Education as implementing
the curriculum

Olivia

Instructional theory

Scientific

To explain

Teaching as transformation

Giroux

Instructional theory

Humanistic
(critical theory)

To prescribe,
describe

Learning Theories

Behaviourism
Pavlov,
Thorndike,
Skinner

Humanism
(Carl Rogers)

Constructivism

Cognitive
(Piaget,
Bruner)

Social
(Vygotsky)
28

Critical
Sensitivity to
thinking

Creative
Imaginative
thinking

Context

Holistic

Reliance on
criteria
Self-correction

Inventive

MultiDimensional
thinking

Generative

Appreciative
Active
Normative

Caring
thinking

Effective
Empathic

Sumber: Lipman M. (2003). Thinking In Education)

29

Implications of Learning Theories for the Educators

A. Preparation
Behavioral

Cognitive

Humanistic

Trainers Philosophy on Learning

a)

Learners can be shaped to the

trainers desired objectives

a)

Behavior change is the

outcome or learners intrinsic
choice under specific
environment

a)

Learning is self-directed with

the trainer as a facilitator in the
learning process

a)

Training is learner-centered with

little trainer dominance

a)

The trainer helps the learner

determine his/her learning
needs for self-actualization and
sensitivity towards others

a)

Experiences relating to
learners needs for self-directed
motives in his/her and
development in the life space

Learning Needs
a)

The learning process is trainercentered matching stimulus and

response

a)

Training is a joint-venture
between trainer and learner
Objectives

a)

Trainer determines the learning

needs-knowledge, skill and
behavior

a)

Trainer assesses the needs of

the learner for his total
development, logic as well as
creativity
Content

a)

The content must leads to

competency, mastery of skills in
relation to the objectives
defined

a)

The integration of concept and

principles to provide
logical/creative problem solving
and expansion of knowledge

B. Presentation
Behavioral

Cognitive

Humanistic

METHOD
i. Learner activity
a)

Passive follower subjected

to trainer manipulated
activities, eg. lecture

a)

Thinking through mental

activities:
self-discovery
Conceptualization
creativity

a)

Experiencing the
environment
Observing and
modelling
Play and fun
Reflecting on
experiences

Ii. Trainer activity

a)

Systematically
programmed learning
activities to meet the
objectives of skills and
attitudes development

a)

What is presented in the

spoken word or visuals
should aim at providing the
correct perception

a)

Provided opportunities for

actualization in the social
setting

b)

Provide appropriate
rewards and reinforcement

b)

Provide exercises for

logical and creative
problem-solving

b)

Arrange resources to
enable learners to work on
their own to meet individual
needs and develop their
self-concept

Continuation

Behavioral

Cognitive
c)

Proceed from
c) Known > unknown
d) General > specific
e) Simple > abstract

Humanistic

c)

Repetition, practice,
rehearsal or role-play to
develop desired
behavior and prevent
extinction

c)

Group
assignment/projects to
provide a social setting

d)

Breakdown skill process d)

into incremental units of
learning

Provide food for thought d)

Sufficient flexibility in
choice of individual
learning needs

e)

Ensure prerequisites for

new learning

e)

Provide linkage from

one learning to the next
in a logical sequence

e)

Clear objective of
individual learning
contract

f)

Allow opportunities to
learn through trial and
error

f)

Facilitate transfer of
learning through
concept-maps / mindmaps

f)

Provide opportunity for

learning from each
other

g)

Provide good models

for limitation

g)

Categorize and code

information for ease of
understanding, memory
and recall

g)

Adopt a non-directive
approach

Continuation

Behavioral
h.

Programmed and
computer-based
learning activities for
self-paced learning

i)

j)

Cognitive
h.

Humanistic

Use building-blocks or
advance organizer for
subsuming new
learning with old

h.

Use of groupdynamites, projects and

cases

Activities should be
i)
related to learners
capability and readiness
to learn

Provide appropriate
arousal for guide to
discovery-learning

i)

Create an environment
of trust

Use demonstration,
simulations (identical
work place) for ease of
transfer of learning

j)

Learning activities must

be expectancy-based
and purposeful to the
learner

k)

Provide good models

and examples for
learners to follow

C. FEEDBACK
Behavioral

Cognitive

Humanistic

Assessment / Evaluation
a)

Constant monitoring
and feedback to
check on progress

a)

Monitoring and
feedback on learning
process

a)

Self-evaluation

b)

Remedial action
through examination
reward or
punishment

b)

Remedial action
through examination
repeats and
reinforcement

b)

Feedback through
informal interaction

c)

Formal objective-test, c)
practical
examinations to test
competency levels.

Formal examinations, c)
assignments,
projects, etc.

Remedial action is
onus of learner

SITUATING THE CURRICULUM:

FIVE PERSPECTIVES (POSNER,
2004)

Traditional

What are the most important

aspects of our cultural heritage that

should be preserved?
Experiential
What experiences will lead to the healthy
growth of the individual?
Structure of the discipline What is the structure of the disciplines of
knowledge?
Behavioral
At the completion of curriculum , what
should the learners be able to do?
Constructivist

How can people learn to make sense of

the world and to think more productively
and creatively?

CURRICULUM AS A SYLLABUS
TO BE TRANSMITTED
This conception is primarily
concerned with the content, which is
a
body
of
knowledge
to
be
transmitted. In this sense, education
involves transmitting or delivering
the knowledge-content to students by
the most effective methods possible.
The majority of teachers, if not most
of them hold this conception of
curriculum.

CURRICULUM AS A PRODUCT
Popularised

by Ralph Tyler (1949),

this approach sees curriculum as an
attempt to achieve certain ends
specified
in
behavioural
and
measurable terms in students. This
ensures a less open, more structured,
atomic
approach
to
teaching,
learning and assessment.

CURRICULUM AS PROCESS

This
approach
of
which
Lawrence
Stenhouse (1975) is its main advocate views
the curriculum as not a physical thing, but
rather the interaction of teachers, students
and knowledge, that is curriculum is what
happens in the classroom. It takes the view
that a curriculum is a set of proposals to be
experimented and tested by teachers and
thus invites the notion of the classroom as
laboratory. Teachers have greater freedom
thus ensuring a more open, less structured
approach to teaching, learning and
assessment.

CURRICULUM AS PRAXIS
This approach incorporates
much
of
the
view
of
a
curriculum as process, but in
addition gives prominence to
making explicit the interests
served by the curriculum. This
approach thus brings to the
centre of the process the
commitment to emancipation.

ALIGNMENT BETWEEN LEARNING,

ASSESSMENT AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

Learning and
Teaching Activities
Designed to meet
learning outcomes

Intended
Learning
Outcomes

Assessment
methods
Designed to assess
learning outcomes

Adapted from BiGGs, 1999, Pg 27.

5 MINDS FOR THE

FUTURE
The

Disciplined Mind
The Synthesizing Mind
The Creating Mind
The Respectful Mind
The Ethical Mind
(Howard Gardner: 2006, 2008)

TAXONOMY OF SIGNIFICANT LEARNING

TAXONOMY OF SIGNIFICANT
LEARNING
Learning How to Foundational
Learn
Knowledge
Becoming a
Understanding
better student
and
Inquiring about a
remembering:
subject
Information
Self-directing
Ideas
learners

Application
Skills
Caring
Thinking: Critical,
Developing new
Creative, &
Feelings
Practical
Interests
Managing projects
Values
Integration
Human
Connecting:
Ideas
Dimensions
Learning about: People
Oneself
Realms of life
Others

In a course with significant learning,

students will:

1. Understand and remember the key

concepts, terms, relationship, etc.
2. Know how to use the content.
3. Be able to relate this subject to other
subjects.
4. Understand the personal and social
implications of knowing about this subject.

5. Value this subject and further learning

about it.
6. Know how to keep on learning about this

INTEGRATED COURSE DESIGN

1. Learning Goals
Start by thinking about your end-ofcourse learning goals NOT the
learning activities.
2. Teaching/Learning Activities
3. Feedback & Assessment
4. Integration

Write Out:

What are the 2-3 most

important kinds of learning
that you want students to get
from your Applied Learning
course?

INTERACTIVE COURSE DESIGN:

Key Components
Learning
Goals

Teaching &
Learning
Activities

Situational

Feedback &
Assessment

Factors

CRITERIA OF GOOD COURSE

DESIGN
Significan
t
Learning

Learnin
g Goals

Teaching
and
Learning
Activities

Teaching
Strategy

Active
Learning

Feedback
&
Assessmen
t
Educative
Assessmen
t

SITUATIONAL
In-Depth
Situational
Analysis

FACTORS