PowerPoint to accompany

Technology of Machine Tools

6th Edition

Krar Gill Smid

Hand-Type
Cutting Tools
Unit 23
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-2

Objectives
Select and use the proper hacksaw blade for
sawing a variety of materials
Select and use a variety of files to perform
various filing operations
Identify and know the purpose of rotary
files, ground burrs, and scrapers

23-3

Sawing, Filing and Scraping

Often necessary to perform certain metalcutting operations at bench or on job
Common tools
Hacksaws
Files
Scrapers

Usually need practice to become proficient

23-4

Pistol-Grip Hand Hacksaw

Composed of three main parts
Frame, handle, and blade

Solid frame more rigid and will

accommodate blades of one specific length
Adjustable frame more common and will
take blades from 10 to 12 in. long
Wing nut provides adjustment

23-5

Hacksaw Blades
Made of high-speed molybdenum or
tungsten-alloy steel (hardened and tempered)
Two types
Solid blade (all-hard)
Hardened throughout and very brittle

Flexible blade
Teeth hardened, while back of blade soft and flexible
Stand more abuse than all-hard blade, but will not last
long in general use
Used on channel iron, tubing, copper and aluminum

23-6

Blade Pitch
Number of teeth per inch
Manufactured in various pitches
14, 18, 24, and 32

General use choice 18 in. tooth blade

Choose as coarse blade as possible
Provides plenty of chip clearance and to cut
through work as quickly as possible

Should have at least two teeth in contact

with work at all times
Prevent work from jamming and stripping teeth

23-7

Guide for Proper Blade Selection

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-8

Guide for Proper Blade Selection

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-9

Guide for Proper Blade Selection

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-10

Guide for Proper Blade Selection

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-11

Files
Hand cutting tool made of high-carbon steel
Series of teeth cut on body by parallel
chisel cuts
Used to remove surplus metal and to
produce finished surfaces
Manufactured in variety of types and shapes
Each has specific purpose

Two classes: single-cut and double-cut

23-12

Single-cut Files
Single row of parallel teeth
running diagonally across face
Used when smooth finish desired
Include mill, long-angle lathe, and saw files

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-13

Double-cut Files
Two intersecting rows of teeth
First row coarser and called overcut
Second row called upcut

Hundreds of cutting teeth

Provide for fast removal of metals and easy
clearing of chips

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-14

Degrees of Coarseness
Both single- and double-cut files come in
various degrees
of coarseness

Rough
Coarse
Bastard
Second-cut
Smooth
Dead smooth

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

Most Common

23-15

Machinist Files
Types most commonly used by machinists
Flat
Hand
Round
Half-round
Square

Pillar
Three-quarter
Warding
Knife

23-16

Cross-sectional Views of Machinists' Files

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-17

Care of Files
1. Do not store files where they rub together
2. Never use file as pry of hammer
3. Do not knock file on vise or other metallic
object to clean it (use brush or file card)
4. Apply pressure only on forward stroke
5. Do not press too hard on new file
6. Too much pressure also results in
"pinning" which scratches work surface

Small particles wedged between teeth

23-18

Points to be Observed When Cross-filing

1. Never use file without handle
2. Fasten work to be filed in vise, at about
elbow height
3. To produce flat surface, hold right hand,
right forearm and left hand in horizontal
plane

Push file across work face in straight line

Do not rock file

23-19

4. Apply pressure only on forward stroke

5. Never rub fingers or hand across surface
being filed

Oil will clog file

Oil causes file to slide over instead of cutting

6. Keep file clean by using file card

frequently
For rough filing, use double-cut file and cross stroke at
regular intervals to keep surface flat and straight. When
finishing, use single-cut file and take shorter strokes to
keep file flat.

23-20

Draw Filing and Polishing

Draw filing
Used to produce smooth, flat surface on
workpiece
Removes file marks and scratches left by crossfiling

Polishing
After surface filed, finished with abrasive cloth
to remove small scratches left by file
Moved back and forth along work

23-21

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-22

Rotary Files
Teeth cut and form broken lines
Dissipate heat of friction
Useful for work on tough die steels,
forgings, and scaly
surfaces

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

23-23

Ground Burrs
Teeth uniform in tooth shape and size
Unbroken flutes
Flutes machine ground to master burr to
ensure uniformity of tooth shape and size

May be made of high-speed steel or

carbide
Carbide last up to 100 times
longer

Used on nonferrous metals

Better chip clearance
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

PowerPoint to accompany

Technology of Machine Tools

6th Edition

Krar Gill Smid

Grinding
Section 15

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

80-25

Grinding
Characteristics of an abrasive must be:
Harder than material being ground
Strong enough to withstand grinding pressures
Heat-resistant so that it does not become dull at
grinding temperatures
Friable (capable of fracturing) so when cutting
edges become dull, they will break off and
present new sharp surfaces to material being
ground

PowerPoint to accompany

Technology of Machine Tools

6th Edition

Krar Gill Smid

Types of
Abrasives
Unit 80

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

80-27

Objectives
Describe the manufacture of
aluminum oxide and silicon carbide
abrasives
Select the proper grinding wheel
for each type of work material
Discuss the applications of grinding
wheels and abrasive products

80-28

Abrasive Classes
Natural abrasives

Sandstone, garnet, flint, emery, quartz, corundum

Used prior to early part of 20th century
Almost totally replaced by manufactured abrasives
Best natural abrasives is diamond (high cost)

Manufactured abrasives
Used because grain size, shape and purity can be
closely controlled
Aluminum oxide, silicon, carbide, boron carbide,
cubic boron nitride and manufactured diamond

80-29

Aluminum Oxide

Most important abrasive

Make up 75% of grinding wheels
Used for high-tensile-strength materials
Manufactured with various degrees of
purity
Hardness and brittleness increase as purity
increases

80-30

Aluminum Oxide Purities

Regular aluminum oxide (Al2O3) at 94.5%
Tough abrasive capable of withstanding abuse
Grayish in color
Used for grinding steel, tough bronzes, etc.

Aluminum oxide at 97.5%

Not as tough as regular but still gray in color
Used in manufacture of grinding wheels for centerless,
cylindrical, and internal grinding of steel and cast iron

Purest form of aluminum oxide

White material that produces sharp cutting edge
Used for grinding hardest steels and stellite

80-31

Silicon Carbide
Suited for grinding materials that have low
tensile strength and high density
Harder and tougher than aluminum oxide
Color varies from green to black
Green used mainly for grinding cemented
carbides and other hard materials
Black used for grinding cast iron and soft
nonferrous metals (also ceramics)

80-32

Manufactured Diamonds
1954, General Electric Company produced ManMadey diamonds in laboratory
1957, General Electric Company began
commercial production of diamonds
First success involved carbon and iron sulfide in
granite tube closed with tantalum disks were
subjected to pressure of 66,536,750 psi and
temperatures between 2550F
Temperatures must be high enough to melt metal
saturated with carbon and start diamond growth

Industrial diamonds referred to as bort

80-33

Diamond Types
Type RVG Diamond
Elongated, friable crystal with rough edges
Letters indicate it can be used with resinoid or
vitrified bond and used for grinding ultrahard
materials
Tungsten carbide
Silicon carbide
Space-age alloys

Used for wet or dry grinding

80-34

Type MBG-II Diamond

Tough and block-shaped crystal

Not as friable as RVG type
Used in metal-bonded grinding wheels
Used for grinding cemented carbides, sapphires,
and ceramics as well as electrolytic grinding

Type MBS Diamond

Blocky, extremely tough crystal with smooth,
regular surface and not friable
Used in metal-bonded saws to cut concrete,
marble, tile, granite, stone, and masonry

80-35

Ceramic Aluminum Oxide

Known as SG abrasive, introduced by Norton
Company in 1988
Outperforms conventional aluminum oxide
Made by nonfused process
Thousands of submicron-sized particles are sintered to
provide single abrasive grain of uniform shape and size
with more cutting edges that remain sharp

SG abrasive well suited to CNC grinding

Fewer wheel changes, less wheel dressing, higher
productivity and therefore lower labor costs

80-36

Advantages of SG Abrasives
Over Conventional Abrasives
Last 5 to 10 times longer than conventional
wheels
Metal-removal rates are doubled
Heat damage to surface of very thin
workpieces reduced
Grinding cycle time reduced
Dressing time reduced as much as 80%

80-37

Abrasive Grain
Aluminum oxide or silicon carbide abrasive
used in most grinding wheels
Each grain on working surface of grinding
wheel acts as separate cutting tool
Removes small metal chip as passes over
surface of work
As grain becomes dull, fractures and presents
new sharp cutting edge to material
Fracturing action reduces heat of friction, producing
relatively cool cutting action

80-38

Grain Size
Abrasive ingot (pig) removed from electric
furnace, crushed, grains cleaned and then
sized by passing them through screens
Contain certain number of meshes or openings per
inch

8-grain

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

24-grain

60-grain

80-39

Grain Sizes
General applications for various grain sizes
8 to 54 for rough grinding operations
54 to 400 for precision grinding processes
320 to 2000 for ultra precision processes to
produce 2 to 4 (micron) finish or fine

80-40

Factors Affecting Selection of

Grain Sizes
1. Type of finish desire
2. Type of material being ground
3. Amount of material to be removed
4. Area of contact between wheel and
workpiece

80-41

Bond Types
Function of bond is to hold abrasive grains
together in form of wheel
Six common bond types used in grinding
wheel manufacture:

Vitrified
Resinoid
Rubber
Shellac
Silicate
Metal

80-42

Vitrified Bond
Used on most grinding wheels
Made of clay or feldspar
Fuses at high temperature and when cooled
forms glassy bond around each grain
Strong but break down readily on wheel
surface to expose new grains during grinding
Bond suited for rapid removal of metal
Not affected by water, oil, or acid

80-43

Resinoid Bond
Synthetic resins used as bonding agents
Generally operate at 9500 sf/min
Wheels are cool-cutting and remove stock
rapidly
Used for cutting-off operations, snagging,
and rough grinding, as well as for roll
grinding

80-44

Precautions to Observe When Handling

and Storing Grinding Wheels
1. Never handle wheels carelessly

Treat them as precision instruments

2. Dry at a reasonable temperature

3. Store wheels properly

Straight or tapered wheels best stored on edge in

individual racks to prevent rolling
Thin, organic bonded wheels laid on flat horizontal
surface to prevent warping
Small cup and internal wheels put separately into
boxes, bins, or drawers
Large cup and cylindrical wheels should be stored on
flat sides with packing between wheels

80-45

Characteristics That Indicate

Wheel Too Soft
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Breaks down too fast

Poor surface finish
Cuts freely
Sparks out quickly
Difficult to maintain size
Scratches (fishtails)

80-46

Characteristics That Indicate

Wheel Too Hard
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Wheel glazes quickly

Loading (material ground fills voids)
Burned work surface
Squealing noise
Doesn't cut freely
Inaccurate work dimensions
Surface finish get progressively better
Won't spark out
Heat checks

80-47

Inspection of Wheels
Inspect wheels after they have been received
Damage might occur during transit

Suspend and tap lightly with screwdriver

handle for small wheels or with wooden
mallet for larger wheels
Vitrified or silicate wheels give clear, metallic
ring when sound
Organic-bonded wheels give duller ring
Cracked wheels do not produce ring

PowerPoint to accompany

Technology of Machine Tools

6th Edition

Krar Gill Smid

Surface Grinders
and Accessories
Unit 81
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for reproduction or display.

81-49

Objectives
Name four methods of surface
grinding and state the advantage of
each
True and dress a grinding wheel
Select the proper grinding wheel to
be used for each type of work
material

81-50

Grinding Process
Workpiece brought into contact with
revolving grinding wheel
Each small
abrasive grain on
periphery of
wheel acts as
individual cutting tool
and removes chip
of metal
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for reproduction or display.

81-51

General Rules for Grinding

1. Use silicon carbide wheel for low-tensilestrength material and aluminum oxide
wheel for high-tensile-strength materials
2. Use hard wheel on soft materials and soft
wheel on hard materials
3. If wheel too hard, increase speed of work
or decrease speed of wheel to make it act
as softer wheel

81-52

4. If wheel appears too soft or wears rapidly,

decrease speed of work or increase speed
of wheel
5. Glazed wheel will affect finish, accuracy,
and metal-removal rate.

Main causes of wheel glazing are:

Wheel speed too fast

Work speed too slow
Wheel too hard
Grain too small
Structure too dense

81-53

Surface Grinding
Refers to production of flat, contoured, and
irregular surfaces on piece of work
Passed against revolving grinding wheel

Four distinct types of surface grinding

machines

Horizontal spindle grinder, reciprocating table

Horizontal spindle grinder, rotary table
Vertical spindle grinder, reciprocating table
Vertical spindle grinder, rotary table

81-54

Guidelines for
Grinding Wheel Care
1. When not in use, store properly
2. Should be tested for cracks prior to use
3. Select proper type wheel for job
4. Should be properly mounted and operated
at recommended speed

81-55

Grinder Safety
1.
2.
3.
4.

Use the right wheel

Ring test the wheel before mounting
Always use mounting blotters
Tighten clamping nuts only enough to
prevent wheel from slipping
5. Be sure flanges are flat and free from
burrs and gouges

81-56

6. Check arbor holes wheel should slip

freely, not loosely, onto spindle arbor
7. Do not exceed maximum speed
8. Always use wheel guard supplied
9. Stand to one side whenever wheel started
10. Always wear safety glasses when grinding

81-57

Truing a Grinding Wheel

Process of making grinding wheel round
and concentric with its spindle axis and
producing required form of shape on wheel
Involves grinding of a portion of the abrasive
section of grinding wheel

81-58

Dressing a Grinding Wheel

Operation of removing dull grains and metal
particles
Exposes sharp cutting edges so cuts better
Reasons for dressing wheel

Reduce heat generated between work and wheel

Reduce strain on grinding wheel and machine
Improve surface finish and accuracy of work
Increase rate of metal removal

81-59

Procedure To True and Dress a

Grinding Wheel
1. Check diamond for wear and if necessary,
turn it in holder to expose sharp cutting edge
2. Clean magnetic chuck thoroughly with cloth
3. Place piece of paper on left-hand end of
magnetic chuck
4. Place diamond holder on paper and energize
chuck

81-60

5. Raise wheel above height of diamond

6. Move table longitudinally so diamond
is offset approximately in. to left of
centerline of wheel
7. Adjust table laterally so diamond is
positioned under high point on face of
wheel
8. Start wheel revolving and carefully
lower wheel until high point touches
diamond

81-61

9. Move table laterally, using crossfeed

handwheel to feed diamond across face
of wheel
10.Lower grinding wheel about .001 to .
002 in. per pass
Rough-dress face of wheel until flat and
dressed all around circumference

11. Lower wheel .0005 in. and take several

passes across face of wheel

81-62

Helpful Ideas When Truing or

Dressing Grinding Wheels
1. To minimize wear on diamond, roughdress with abrasive stick
2. If coolant to be used during grinding, use
coolant when dressing wheel
3. Loaded wheel indicated by discoloration
of periphery or face remove completely
4. If rapid removal of metal more important
than surface finish, do NOT finish-dress

81-63

Work-Holding Devices
Work must be held in vise, held on V-blocks
or bolted directly to table for some surfacegrinding operations
Most of ferrous work ground on surface
grinder held on magnetic chuck
Clamped to table of grinder

81-64

Two Types Magnetic Chucks

Electromagnetic chuck
Uses electromagnets to provide holding power
Advantages
Holding power may be varied to suit area of contact
Special switch neutralizes residual magnetism in
chuck

Permanent magnetic chuck

Holding power provide by means of permanent
magnets

81-65

Four Purposes of
Grinding Fluids
1. Reduction of grinding heat
2. Lubrication
3. Removal of swarf from cutting area

Small metal chips and abrasive grains

4. Control of grinding dust

81-66

Types of Grinding Fluids

1. Soluble oil and water

Milky solution applied by flooding surface

2. Soluble chemical grinding fluids and

water

Used with "through-the-wheel" systems

Contains rust inhibitors and bactericides

3. Straight oil grinding fluids

Applied by flood system and used for high

finish, accuracy and long wheel life

81-67

Methods of Applying Coolants

Flood system
Coolant directed onto work by nozzle and recirculated
through system

Through-the-wheel cooling
Fluid pumped and discharged into dovetailed groove in
wheel flange (with holes), fluid forced through wheel
by centrifugal force

Mist cooling system

Atomizer principle: air passes through line, as passes
reservoir draws coolant and discharges it in vapor form
directed at point of contact

81-68

Factors Affecting Surface Finish

Material being ground
Amount of material being removed
Grinding wheel selection
Grinding wheel dressing
Condition of machine
Feed

PowerPoint to accompany

Technology of Machine Tools

6th Edition

Krar Gill Smid

Surface Grinding
Operations
Unit 82
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for reproduction or display.

82-70

Objectives
Set up various workpieces for
grinding
Observe the safety rules to operate
the grinder
Grind flat, vertical, and angular
surfaces

82-71

Surface Grinding
Primarily for grinding flat surfaces on
hardened or unhardened workpiece
Perform operations such as form, angular,
and vertical grinding
Good results depend on several factors:
Proper mounting
Proper wheel selection for job

82-72

Mounting Workpiece for Grinding

Flat Work or Plates
1. Remove all burrs from surface of work
2. Clean chuck surface with clean cloth
3. Place piece of paper slightly larger than
workpiece in center of magnetic chuck face
4. Place work on top of paper, and be sure to
straddle as many magnetic inserts as possible
5. If workpiece warped, shim work to prevent rocking
6. Turn handle to on position
7. Check work to see it is held securely

82-73

Short Workpieces
Work that does not straddle three magnetic
poles generally not held firmly enough for
grinding
Advisable to straddle as many poles as
possible
Set parallels or steel pieces around work to
prevent it from moving
Parallels should be slightly thinner than workpiece

82-74

Grinder Safety
1. Before mounting a grinding wheel, ring
test wheel to check for defects
2. Be sure grinding wheel properly mounted
on spindle
3. See wheel guard covers at least one-half
wheel
4. Make sure magnetic chuck has been
turned on by trying to remove work

82-75

5. See that grinding wheel clears work

before starting grinder
6. Be sure grinder operating at correct speed
for wheel being used
7. When starting grinder, always stand to
one side of wheel
8. Never attempt to clean magnetic chuck or
mount and remove work until wheel has
stopped completely
9. Always wear safety glasses when
grinding

82-76

Procedure to Grind a Flat

(Horizontal) Surface
1. Remove all burrs and dirt from workpiece
and face of magnetic chuck
2. Mount work on chuck, placing piece of
paper between chuck and workpiece
3. Check to see that work held firmly
4. Set table reverse dogs so center of
grinding wheel clears each end of work by
1 in.

82-77

5. Set crossfeed for type of grinding

operation roughing cuts, .030 to .050 in.;
finishing cuts, .005 to .020 in.
6. Bring work under grinding wheel by hand,
having about 18 in. of wheel edge over
work
7. Start grinder and lower wheelhead until
wheel just sparks work
8. Wheel may have been set on low spot of
work.

82-78

Cutting fluid should be used whenever

possible to aid grinding action keep cool
9. Start table traveling automatically and feed
entire width of work under wheel to check
for high spots
10. Lower wheel for every cut until surface is
completed roughing cuts, .001 to .003 in.;
finishing cuts, .0005 to .001 in.
11. Release magnet and remove workpiece by
raising one edge to break attraction

82-79

To Grind the
Edges of a Workpiece
Edges ground square and parallel so edges
may be used for further layout or operations
Flat surfaces ground first, permits them to
be used as reference surfaces for setups
Clamp work to angle plate so two adjacent
sides ground square without moving
workpiece

82-80

3. Place ground edge of workpiece on paper

If work 1 in. thick and long enough to span

three magnetic poles on chuck, and no more
than 2 in. high, no angle plate required
If work less than 1 in. thick and does not span
three magnetic poles, fastened to angle plate

Place ground edge on paper and place angle plate

no higher than workpiece against workpiece
Turn on chuck and clamp work to angle plate

4. Grind third edge to required size

5. Repeat operations 1 to 3 and grind 4th edge

82-81

Mounting the Workpiece

4. Remove burrs from magnetic chuck and
workpiece and thoroughly clean chuck
5. Place piece of smooth paper between
work and magnetic chuck; energize chuck
Setting Speeds and Feeds
6. Adjust table reverse dogs so center of
grinding wheel clears each end of work to
be ground by 1 in.

82-82

7. Set table crossfeed:

Rough grinding to wheel width

Finish grinding smaller crossfeed increments

8. Set table speed rate from 50 to 100 ft/min

9. Set spindle speed for size and type of CBN
wheel used
Setting wheel to work surface
10. Set wheel to top of work surface
11. Traverse workpiece under revolving wheel
to locate high spot of work surface

82-83

12. Move table so wheel clears edge of work

surface to be ground
Coolant
13. Use proper grinding fluids to suit wheel
and workpiece
14. Stop grinder spindle and adjust coolant
nozzle so it is about in. above work
surface and as close to wheel face as
possible

82-84

15. Place dummy block, slightly lower than

work surface, at right-hand end so entire
surface receives coolant at all times

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

82-85

Grinding the Surface

16. Start grinder spindle and lower
wheelhead .001 in. for first cut
17. Start coolant flow
18. Start table reciprocating and engage
crossfeed to take roughing pass
19. Be sure edge of grinding wheel clears side
of work after each pass
20. Take as many passes (.001 in.) as needed
21. Set wheelhead for .0005 in. depth for final
pass to improve surface finish