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Introduction to Sociology

February 7, 2010

What is Sociology
Sociology is the systematic study of social

behavior and human groups


Systematic approach is:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD or METHODOLOGY
systematic, organized series of steps
insures maximum objectivity and consistency
researching a problem
shared basis for discussion and analysis
promote reliability and validity

Modernity and Social Theory


"What experience and history teach us is this:

that people and governments never have learned


anything from history, or acted on the experience
deduced from it
prospect of learning something from history
developing a systematic understanding of the forces
Intimate relationship
social change instituted in the development of the

modern world that a discipline such as sociology - and


social science in general - could either exist or have
anything to study

Sociological Jorgen
Sociologism
Social agents/

individuals/social
actors
Consumers
Workers
Social totalities, status
groups, collectivities,
networks or classes
Society
Discourse

English
people
People when they buy

things
people when they do
things
groups of people
a lot of groups of people

trying to live together


what people say they do

Sociological Jorgen
Sociologism
Consciousness
Action
Oppression
Repression

English
what they think they do
what they actually do (always

very different)
what some people do to other

people when they do things


they disapprove of
what people do to themselves

when they think things that


other people disapprove of
Historical context
Structure
Agency

the way people have done

things in past influences how


people do things now
the fact that way in which

other people do things


influences how you do things

Nature & Scope of Sociology


Sociology is Both Rational and Empirical

Science
Empirical: Experiences & facts
Rational: Reasons & Theories

Sociology is a General and not a Special

Social Science
Sociology is relatively an Abstract and not a
Concrete Science
Sociology is a Pure and not an Applied
Science
Sociology is a Categorical and not an
Normative Science

Lecture 2
February 9, 2011

Methods of Research
Quantitative designs approach social

phenomena through quantifiable evidence


It involves
Methods which rely on statistical analysis
of many cases (or across intentionally
designed treatments in an experiment)
Ways to create valid and reliable general
claims

Methods of Research
Qualitative designs emphasize

understanding of social phenomena


through direct observation
It involves
Communication with participants
Analysis of texts
Stress contextual and subjective accuracy
over generality

Methods of Study
Cross sectional study
Longitudinal Study
Laboratory Study
Filed Study
Observational Study

Cross Sectional Study


Cross Sectional study forms a class of

research methods that involve observation


of all of a population, or a representative
subset, at a defined time.
It involves
Special data collection e.g. censuses
Including questions about the past
rely on data originally collected for other
purposes
It is moderately expensive
Past events may also contribute bias

Longitudinal Study
It is a correlational research study that

involves repeated observations of the same


items over long periods of time, often many
decades
In Sociology it is used to study
Life events throughout lifetimes or
generations
Track the same people
Differences observed in those people are
less likely to be the result of cultural
differences across generations
Observing changes are more accurate and
they are applied in various other fields

Laboratory Study
It is a study involving a comparison group

in which the investigator intentionally alters


one or more risk factors in order to discover
or demonstrate some fact or general truth
It involves
Standard conditions
One set up in such a way that all levels of
each intervention or treatment occur with
each level of response
Conditions can be almost completely
controlled

Field Study
It is a term used by naturalists for the scientific

study of free-livings in which the subjects are


observed in their natural habitat, without
changing, harming, or materially altering the
setting or behavior of the specimen under study
It involves
Collection of raw data
Studies to helps to reveal the habits and habitats
of various organisms
Sociometry: Quantitative method of measuring
social relationships
the hidden beliefs, the forbidden agendas, the
ideological agreements, the stars of the show

Observational Study
It is either an activity of a living being

(such as a human), consisting of receiving


knowledge of the outside world through the
senses, or the recording of data using
scientific instrument.
It involves
Techniques which may or may not feature
participation
Records information about social
phenomenon or behavior
way you look at things or you look at
anything

Lecture 3
February 14, 2011

The Roles of a Sociologist


The Sociologist as a Research Scientist
The Sociology as a Policy Consultant
The Sociologist as a Teacher
The Sociologist as a Social Action

Sociologist as a Researcher
Conducting Scientific Research
Foremost Task
Division of time between Teaching and
Research
Funding agencies: The Influencing Power
Militarism, Racism & other Oppressions
Biasness &Partisanship
What characteristics of poor people
contribute to the poverty?
What social arrangements produce
poverty?

Sociologist as a Researcher
Correcting Popular Nonsense
To clear out rubbish of misinformation
Cluttering of social thinking
E.g. nonsense about race, class, sex
difference
White race is superior
Women are intellectually inferior to men
The most important Function

Sociologist as a Researcher
Making Social Predictions
Track record is not impressive
Policy based on certain assumptions
about the present & future
E.g. The trend towards employment of
women will continue until most of the
women are working for most of their
married lives
The present popularity of jeans & causal
clothing will be followed by a return to
high style clothing

Sociologist as a Policy
Consultant
Social decision is a prediction
To estimate the probable effects of a social

policy
Contribution to the selection of policies
To achieve the intended purpose
Would low birthrates and small family norm
increase marital happiness?
Yes; there is a research evidence that
smaller families are better off in every
way.

Sociologist as a Technician
Clinical Sociology has appeared to describe the

work of sociologist as Technician


New name for the same work sociologists have
been doing for long
it is the broadening of sociologists efforts to be
useful in society
Sociologist works as an applied scientist
Usage of scientific knowledge in pursuing certain
values
Question of ethics
Has scientific integrity been compromised?
What clinical appointments are proper for a
Sociologist to accept?
Still a QUESTION

Sociologist as a Teacher
Value neutrality vs value commitment
E.g. Should the sociologist supervise an

objective study of facts & theories


OR

Should the course be designed to dedicated

advocates of an action program?


Should the sociologist convert the students
to conservatism, liberal reformism or
revolutionary activism?

Sociologist as a Social Action


Sociologist should tell society how to use the

discovered knowledge
Sociologists know about the public problems
and they should be public advocates of
these problems
Major roles in making decisions about public

policy
Involve themselves in major issues of society
Show what they have learnt from their
experiences
Sociologists should show the relationship

between values

Lecture 4
February 23, 2011

Culture
Culture from the Latin cultura stemming from

colere, meaning "to cultivate") is a term that has


various meanings.
However, the word "culture" is most commonly
used in three basic senses:
Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities,

also known as high culture


An integrated (incorporated) pattern of human
knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon
the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning
The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and
practices that characterizes an institution,
organization or group

Culture
Culture is everything which is socially learned

and shared by the members of a society.


Culture can be divided in to two main types
Nonmaterial Culture consists of the words
people use
Ideas & customs
The beliefs they hold
The habits they follow
Material Culture consists of the manufactured
objects
Tools & Furniture
Automobiles
Cultivated farms, roads and bridges

Culture and Society


Two different words with different meanings
Culture is an organized system of norms and

values which people hold


Society is an organization of people whose
associations are with one another
E.g. Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa has a number of
societies we call Tribes but they share a
similar culture.

Social & Cultural


Development
Two important factors
Biological Factors
Geographic Factors

Biological Factors
Sociobiology a new attraction in Sociology
It is the systematic study of the biological basis

of human behavior
The interaction of biology and culture influence
human behavior to develop the human society
In the beginning the culture accumulation was
very slow
Caves
Simple stone tools
Edible roots to eat
Fire produced by lightning or stones
Humans were more like Apes

Biological Factors
Culture started growing when first Man came into

being about 150,000 years ago.


Human started using brains to build culture
Social Evolution the exciting idea of nineteenth
centaury
Charles Darwin wrote the book Origin of Species
Human has evolved from lower orders of life
Survival to the fittest
Auguste Comte in his book Positive Philosophy
states three stages through which human thought
moved
The Theological
The Metaphysical
The Positive (Scientific)

Biological Factors
Herbert Spencer (Giant of nineteenth

centaury) says that:


Societies moved from simple to complex
systems
From homogeneous to heterogeneous
End misery and increase human happiness
Anthropologists deny this fact
E.g. many primitive tribes have more
elaborated kinship system
More ritualistic and ceremonial life than
modern societies

Lecture 5
March 2, 2011

Culture
Prosperities of Culture
Ideal n Real Culture
The topics discussed in class in the shape of

presentations from different groups.

Lecture 6
March 30, 2011

Social Organization
An organization is:

the planned, coordinated and purposeful action


of human beings
working through collective action
to reach a common goal or construct a tangible
product.

Advantages of organizations are:


Enhancement (more of the same)
Addition (combination of different features)
Extension
Disadvantages are:
Inertness (through co-ordination)
Loss of interaction

Family
In human context, a family (from Latin: familiare) is a group

of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence.


In most societies it is the principal institution for the
socialization of children.
Family concepts are:
Affinity (Kinship of Spirit), marriage, economy, culture, tradition,

honor, and friendship


that grow extending to
community, village, city, region, nationhood, global village and
humanism.
A family group consisting of a father, mother and their

children is called a nuclear family.


This term can be contrasted with an extended family.
Extended family is used synonymously with consanguineous

family or joint family

Family in East
Family in East is based on joint family system.
Six key aspects of Joint Family are:
head of the family takes all decision
all members live under one roof
share the same kitchen
three generations living together (though often two or

more brothers live together, or father and son live


together or all the descendants of male live together)
income and expenditure in a common pool- property
held together.
a common place of worship
all decisions are made by the male head of the family

Family Structure
Immediate family:
Spouse (Husband | Wife) Parent (Father | Mother) Child

(Son | Daughter) Sibling (Brother | Sister)


Extended family :
Grandparent Uncle Aunt Cousin Nephew Niece

Common ancestor
Family-in-law:
Father-in-law Mother-in-law Brother-in-law Sister-in-

law
Kinship:
Affinity Marriage Adoption Divorce Disownment

Relationships:
Familial love Parental love Marital love Brotherly love

Lecture 7
April 11, 2011

Social Institutions
The Institutional Concept:
A system of norms to achieve a goal or

activity that people feel is important.


They are structured processes through which
people carry on their activities.
Institutions & Associations:
Institutions dont have members, they have

followers.
Examples are:

Institutions & Associations


Example 1: Religion
Religion is a system of ideas, beliefs, practices and

relationships.
A Mosque is an association where people accept the same
beliefs and follow the practices of a particular religion.
Example 2: Football
The game is set of rules and practices with supporting

values and sentiments.


The players are the association of persons who play the
game
Example 3: Banks
Banking institutions are standardized ways of handling

transactions
Bank is an association of bankers who carry out those
transactions.

The Development of
Institutions
The Process of Institutionalization:
Institutions emerge as the unplanned products of

social living.
People group practical ways of meeting their
needs.
They find workable patterns which harden through
repetition into standardized customs.
With passage of time, these patterns acquire a
body of supporting folklore which justifies them.
For example:
The custom of dating developed as a means of
mate selection.
Banks gradually developed as a need of storing,
transferring and borrowing.

The Development of Institutions


Institutionalization consists of establishment of

definite norms which assign status position and


role functions for behaviors.
It involves replacement of spontaneous or
experimental behaviors with behaviors which
are expected, patterned, regular and
predictable.
A social relationship becomes institutionalized
when:
A regular system of statuses and roles has been

developed
That system of statuses and roles has generally
been accepted in society.

Individual Roles in Institutional Behavior


Institutionalized Role is the set of behavioral

expectations that limit ones free choices.


Not all roles are institutionalized.
Roles that are generally accepted and respected in
a society are the institutionalized roles.
For Example:
All judges act a good deal alike when on the bench,

however they may differ at other times from each


other.
Every minister, priest or religious scholar fulfills its
duties defined by institutions. Its hazardous when they
deviate from them.
When Edward VIII insisted to get married to a divorces
woman, he was forces to abdicate the throne of
England.

The Institutional Traits


The Cultural Symbols:
Symbols serve as shorthand reminder of the

institution.
Citizens are reminded of allegiance to government
by the flag, family to the wedding ring/Nikahnama,
education by the school and system of economics to
brand names and trademarks.
Music also has symbolic meanings like national
anthems, school songs, national songs, religious
hymns.
Buildings are becoming institutional symbols too
Its hard to think home without a house, religion without

a mosque or church, education without a school


building.

The Institutional Traits


Codes of Behavior:
People involved in institutionalized behaviors

have to carry out their appropriate roles.


These roles are often expressed in formal codes
such as oath of allegiance, the marriage vows,
the medical professions oath.
People sometimes dont perform their roles
properly.
Husband and wives may prove unfaithful to marital

vows.
Citizens not paying the taxes
If there are no sure punishment for violation, the

code may be quietly ignored.

The Institutional Traits


Codes of Behavior:
Behavior in any role has informal traditions,

expectations and routines which one


absorbs through observation and
experience.
For Example
Children who never lived in happy family face

difficulty in successfully filling the roles of


parent and husband or wife.
Institutionalized roles can be performed

successfully by those who internalized the


proper role attitudes and behaviors.

The Institutional Traits


Institutional Ideologies:
Ideology is a system of ideas which sanction a set of

norms.
Norm defines how people are expected to act whereas
Ideology explains why people should act and why they
sometimes fail to act.
It includes both
Central beliefs, norms of institution
Rational justification for the application of institutional

norms.
Simpler cultures do not have developed behavioral

ideologies
Complex cultures generally have elaborated
institutional ideologies.

Lecture 8
April 15, 2011

Religion
Religion is a cultural system that creates

powerful and long-lasting meaning, by


establishing symbols that relate humanity
to beliefs and values.
Many religions have narratives, symbols,
traditions and sacred histories that are
intended to give meaning to life or to
explain the origin of life or the universe.
They tend to derive morality, ethics,
religious laws or a preferred lifestyle from
their ideas about the cosmos and human
nature.

Religion
The word religion is sometimes used

interchangeably with faith or belief system,


but religion differs from private belief in
that it has a public aspect.
The practice of a religion may also include
sermons, commemoration of the activities
of a god or gods, sacrifices, festivals,
feasts, trance, initiations, funerary services,
matrimonial services, meditation, music,
art, dance, public service, or other aspects
of human culture.

1st Row: Christian Cross, Jewish Star of David, Hindu Aumkar


2nd Row: Islamic Star and crescent, Buddhist Wheel of Dharma, Shinto Torii
3rd Row: Sikh Khanda, Bah' star, Jain Ahimsa Symbol

The Development of Religion


The development of religion has taken

different forms in different cultures. Some


religions place an emphasis on belief, while
others emphasize practice.
Some religions focus on the subjective
experience of the religious individual, while
others consider the activities of the religious
community to be most important.
Some religions claim to be universal, believing
their laws and cosmology to be binding for
everyone, while others are intended to be
practiced only by a closely defined or localized
group.

Four largest
religions

Adherents

% of world
population

World
population

6.8 billion

Figures taken
from individual
articles:

Christianity

1.9 billion 2.1


billion

29% 32%

Islam

1.3 billion 1.57


billion

19% 21%

Buddhism

500 million 1.5


billion

7% 21%

Hinduism

950 million 1
billion

14% 15%

Total

4.65 billion 6.17


billion

68.38%
90.73%

The Functions of a Religion


There are three functions of a religion
1. Doctrines: A pattern of beliefs which

defines the nature of the relationship of


human beings to one another and to God.
2. Rituals: Which symbolize the doctrines and
remind people of them.
3. Behavior Norms: The series of norms
which are consistent with the doctrines.
. The work of explaining and defending the
doctrines, carrying out the rituals and
reinforcing the desired behavior norms leads
to the complex pattern of worship and

Religious Belief in Christianity


Luke Timothy Johnson writes that "Most

religions put more emphasis on orthopraxy


(right practice) than on orthodoxy (right
belief).
Christianity puts more emphasis on belief
than other religions.
The Church has throughout its history set out
creeds that define correct belief for Christians
and which identify heresy.
Judaism and Islam have each created
sophisticated systems of law to guide
behaviour, but have allowed an astonishing
freedom of conviction and intellectual

Religious Belief in Christianity


Buddhism and Hinduism concentrate on the

practices of ritual and transformation rather


than on uniformity of belief
Tribal religions express their view of reality
through a variety of myths, not a 'rule of faith'
for their members."
Christianity by contrast places a peculiar
emphasis on belief and has created ever more
elaborate and official statements in its creeds.

Religious Belief in Judaism


Whether Judaism entails belief or not has

been a point of some controversy.


Some say it is does not, some have suggested
that belief is relatively unimportant for Jews.
"To be a Jew," says de Lange, "means first and

foremost to belong to a group, the Jewish


people, and the religious beliefs are secondary.
Others say that the Shema prayer, recited in the
morning and evening services, expresses a
Jewish creed: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God,
the Lord is One."
Maimonidess Thirteen Principles of the Faith

are sometimes taken as the statement of

Maimonidess Thirteen Principles of


the Faith
God is the Creator.
God is a unity.
God is incorporeal.
God is the first and the last.
It is right to pray to God and to no other.
The words of the prophets are true.
The prophecy of Moses was true.
The Torah was given to Moses.
The Torah will never change.
God knows all the deeds of human beings and

all their thoughts.


God rewards those who keep His
commandments and punishes those that
transgress them.

Religious Belief in Islam


Muslims declare the shahadat, or testimony: "I

bear witness that there is nothing worthy of


worship except Allah, and I bear witness that
Muhammad is the messenger of Allah."

Lecture 9
April 25, 2011

Political-Economic Institutions

Each Society developed institutional ways of

meeting needs for food, clothing , housing and


whatever else if needed.
E.g. food sharing was an institutional practice
in many simple societies
Every household in the village had a right to a

share of the kill made by anyone in the village


Thus economic institutions emerge from

peoples trial and error efforts to meet their


needs
It is emerged from the success of one group in
imposing duties and obligations upon another

Political-Economic Institutions

Trade developed when people wanted

something their neighbor produced


The process of exchange became standardized,

orderly and predictable and therefore


institutionalized.
Economic Institutions emerged when people

developed orderly routines for exchanging


goods, assigning work tasks and recognizing
claims upon one another.
The domestication of animals, the
establishment of settled agriculture with
claims to land and eventual development of
industries led to development of economic n

Political-Economic Institutions

The growth of political authority paralleled the

growth of cultural complexity


From family head to tribal council to chief

The word civilized implies a system of civil law

in place of traditional authority administrated


by set of designated officers.
Civil govt. became necessary when the ancient

river valley civilization arose along the Nile.


Feudalism was a set of economic and

political institutions which developed in the


number of places as an intermediate stage
between the tribal societies and the national
state.

Political-Economic Institutions

From the beginning, Governments have been

involved in economic affairs.


Rome had state operated mines throughout the

empire, requiring a constant stream of slaves


and convicts for their operation
The mercantilist system of the 17th & 18th

centuries assumed that it was the


responsibility of the state to control and direct
all economic activity.
Mercantilism is an economic theory,
considered to be a form of economic
nationalism, that holds that the prosperity of a
nation is dependent upon its supply of capital,

Political-Economic Institutions

In past economic activities of governments

have expanded enormously.


With economic development comes division of

labor.
We have 12,000 occupations listed in
Dictionary of Occupational Titles
Warfare also feeds the growth of government.
A disciplined army can defeat an unorganized

horde many times its size.


In modern societies, the social service function

has become a powerful source of


governmental growth.
A century ago, western government began

Political-Economic Institutions

Types of Modern Governmental-economic


systems:
There are three different types of

Governmental-economic systems.
1. Mixed Economies
2. Communist Societies
3. Fascist Societies

Political-Economic Institutions

Mixed Economy: It is a balanced economy

that includes a variety of private and public


control, reflecting characteristics of both
capitalism and socialism.
Most mixed economies can be described as
market economies with strong regulatory
oversight, in addition to having a variety of
government sponsored aspects.
There is not one single definition for a mixed
economy, but the definitions always involve a
degree of private economic freedom mixed
with a degree of government regulation of
markets.

Political-Economic Institutions

Economies ranging from the United States to

Cuba have been termed mixed economies.


The economic freedom side includes privately
owned industry for reasons including individual
freedom, economic efficiency (most especially
the allocative efficiency provided by the
invisible hand of markets), and the incentive to
innovate provided by competition.
The government regulation side addresses
concerns that the private sector cannot be (or
at least has never yet been) well equipped to
address, such as environmental protection,
maintenance of employment standards, and

Political-Economic Institutions

In some mixed economies, it even includes

various degrees of centralized economic


planning, that is, state ownership of some of
the means of production for national or social
objectives.
Mixed economies as an economic ideal are
supported by people of various political
persuasions, typically centre-left and centreright, such as social democrats or Christian
democrats.

Political-Economic Institutions

Communist Society: It is the society

postulated by the ideology of communism: a


society which is classless and stateless, based
upon common ownership of the means of
production with free access to articles of
consumption, the end of economic exploitation.
The term "communist society" should be
distinguished from "communist state", the
latter referring to a state ruled by a party
which professes the communist ideology.
In Marxist theory, communism is a specific
stage of historical development that inevitably
emerges from the development of the

Political-Economic Institutions

In a communist utopia, economic relations no

longer would determine the society. Scarcity


would no longer be a factor. Alienated labor
would cease, as people would be free to pursue
their individual goals.
It would be a democratic society, enfranchising
the entire population.
A communist society would also have no need
for a state, whose purpose was to enforce
hierarchical economic relations (thus Marx
wrote of "the withering of the state").
Capitalism is an economic system in which the

means of production are privately owned and

Political-Economic Institutions

Fascist Society: Fascism is a radical,

authoritarian nationalist political ideology.


Fascists advocate the creation of a totalitarian
single-party state that seeks the mass
mobilization of a nation through indoctrination,
physical education, and family policy including
eugenics.
Eugenics is the "applied science or the biosocial

movement which advocates the use of practices


aimed at improving the genetic composition of a
population," usually referring to human
populations

Political-Economic Institutions

Fascists produce their nation's rebirth based

on commitment to the national community


based on organic unity where individuals are
bound together by suprapersonal connections
of ancestry, culture, and "blood".
Fascists believe that a nation requires strong
leadership, singular collective identity, and the
will and ability to commit violence and wage
war in order to keep the nation strong.
Fascist governments forbid and suppress
opposition to the state.
Fascism was founded by Italian national

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