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Power Amplifiers

Classification of Power Amplifiers


Power

amplifiers are classified based on the Q

point
If the operating point is chosen at the middle of the
load line, it is called Class A amplifier
If the operating point is chosen at the cut-off point
it is called Class B amplifier
If the operating point is chosen beyond the cut-off
point it is called Class C amplifier
It conducts for 3600

Concept Preview
Efficiency is most important in power amplifiers.
Poor efficiency means that much of the input
power is converted to heat.
A class A amplifier conducts for the entire signal
cycle and has the lowest efficiency.
A class B amplifier conducts for only half of the
signal cycle.
A class C amplifier conducts for less than half of
the signal cycle.
A class D amplifier switches between cutoff and
saturation.

High efficiency
means
less
HEAT
= PIN
- Pheat.
OUT

Input signal

Power
Amplifier

PIN

Output signal

Efficiency =

POUT
POUT
PIN

Efficiency
The dc power supplied to an amplifier is
PIN = VCC x IDC
Efficiency = POUT/PIN x 100%
The maximum efficiency for Class A
amplifiers with a dc collector resistance
and a separate load resistance is 25%.
Class A is usually not acceptable when
watts of power are required.

The major classes of amplifier operation


IC

IC

B
t

t
IC

IC
ISAT

D
t

Class and efficiency quiz


If POUT = 100 W and PIN = 200 W, the
50%
efficiency is _________.
The efficiency of an ideal amplifier is
__________.
100%
When efficiency is poor, too much of the input
is converted to ________.
heat
An amplifier that conducts for the entire cycle
is operating Class _______.
A
An amplifier that conducts for half the cycle
is operating Class _______.
B

Concept Preview
Class A amplifiers operate at the center of the load
line and have a large quiescent current flow.
Class B amplifiers operate at cutoff and have no
quiescent current flow.
Class B amplifiers are usually operated in pushpull configurations.
Class B amplifiers have crossover distortion.
Class AB reduces crossover distortion.
Bridge amplifiers provide four times the output
power and eliminate the output coupling capacitor.

Class A amplifier
The

Q point is chosen at the middle of load line


This will give equal swing on either direction
Both halves of the input comes at the output
Hence Class A will give (amplitude) distortionless
output
It can handle only small signals
Its efficiency is less

Ic

mA
0
1

Ib = 60A

10mA

A
6m
A
4m

Ib = 50A

8mA

Q
6mA

Ib = 40A

Ib = 30A

4mA

Ib = 20A

2mA

A
0V

24 V

Vce

Class A

A large-signal amplifier can also be called a power amplifier.


This class A amplifier has a large quiescent collector current.

VCC
18 V
=
=
= 15 mA
1.2 k
RB
IC = x IB = 60 x 15 mA = 0.9 A

RL = 12

RB = 1.2 k

CC

C
= 60
E

VCC = 18 V

VCC
18 V
ISAT =
=
= 1.5 A
12
RL

IC in A

This is a Class A amplifier.


Q

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
PC = VCE x IC = 7.2 V x 0.9 A = 6.48 W

25 mA
20 mA
mA
10 mA
5 mA
0 mA

Class B amplifier
The

Q point is chosen at the cut-off point


This will give swing only on one direction
Only one half of the input comes at the output
Hence Class B will give (amplitude) distorted
output
It can handle large signals
Its efficiency is high
It conducts for 1800

Ic

mA
0
1

Ib = 60A

10mA

Ib = 50A

8mA

Ib = 40A

6mA

A
0m

Ib = 30A

4mA

Ib = 20A

2mA

Q
0V

Class B

24 V

Vce

This is a Class B amplifier.


Its quiescent power dissipation is zero.

IC in A

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
PC = VCE x IC = 18 V x 0 A = 0 W

25 mA
20 mA
mA
Q
10 mA
5 mA
0 mA

0 2 4 6

Cl

20 mA

as
sB

25 mA

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

mA

10 mA
5 mA
8 10 12 14 16

0 mA
The collector signal
is too distorted for
linear applications.

The complementary-symmetry Class B


push-pull amplifier has acceptable
linearity for some applications.
+VCC

C
B

NPN

E
E
PNP

PNP

NPN

Class B

Since the base-emitter junction potential


is 0.7 V, there is some crossover distortion.
+VCC

C
B

NPN

E
E
PNP

Crossover distortion is eliminated


by applying some forward bias
to the transistors (class AB).
+VCC

C
B

NPN

1.4 V

E
PNP

The quiescent power dissipation is moderate for class AB.


The efficiency is much better than class A.

IC in A

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts

A bridge-tied load provides four times the output


power for a given supply voltage and load resistance.
Bridge amplifier
Single-ended amplifier

+VCC

+VCC

Cap. required

+VCC

Max. = VCC

Max. = 2 x VCC
RL

2
RL

Max.
Max.

Class A, B, and AB quiz


Class A amplifiers are biased to operate near
the ________ of the load line. center
Class B amplifiers have their Q-points at
____________.
cutoff
The conduction angle for class B is
_________.
180o
To reduce distortion, two class B transistors
are arranged in _____________. push-pull
Class AB is a solution for __________
distortion.
crossover

Concept Review
Class A amplifiers operate at the center of the load
line and have a large quiescent current flow.
Class B amplifiers operate at cutoff and have no
quiescent current flow.
Class B amplifiers are usually operated in pushpull configurations.
Class B amplifiers have crossover distortion.
Class AB reduces crossover distortion.
Bridge amplifiers provide four times the output
power and eliminate the output coupling capacitor.
Repeat Segment

Concept Preview
Class C amplifiers are biased beyond cutoff for a
small conduction angle and high efficiency.
Class C amplifiers used tuned tank circuits to
reduce distortion in RF applications.
Class C amplifiers cannot be used in wideband
applications like audio.
Class D amplifiers switch between cutoff and
saturation for very high efficiency.
Class D amplifiers operate at a relatively high
switching frequency and often use PWM.
Class D can be used in audio applications.

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

AB

0 2 4 6

8 10 12 14 16 18

The class of an amplifier


is determined by the bias
which establishes the Q-point.
Class C is established by reverse
biasing the base-emitter junction.

Class C amplifier
The

Q point is chosen at the beyond the cut-off


point
This will give only a partial swing in one direction
Only a portion of the input comes at the output
Hence Class C will give (amplitude) severely
distorted output
It can handle large signals
It conducts for less than 180 0

Ic

mA
0
1

Ib = 60A

10mA

Ib = 50A

8mA

Ib = 40A

6mA

A
0m

Ib = 30A

4mA

Ib = 20A

2mA

Q`
0V

Class C

24 V

Vce

Class A

Class B

Class C

Conduction Angles
& theoretical max. efficiencies:
Class

A = 360o
Class B
= 180o
Class AB 200o
Class C
90o

50 %*
78.5 %
(between A & B)
100 %

*Class A amplifiers are seldom driven to maximum


output and typically provide much less efficiency.

Class C amplifier
VCC
Tank circuit
C
CC

B
RB
VBB

The transistor is
off for most of
the input cycle
and the conduction
angle is small.

VBB reverse biases the base-emitter junction.

0.7 V
VBB

VBE waveform
Class C amplifier
waveforms
(with tank circuit)

0A

IC waveform

VCE waveform
Low VCE when IC is flowing

Class C amplifier with signal bias


VCC

C
CC

B
RB

The base-emitter
junction rectifies
the input signal
and charges CC.

Signal bias increases when the input


signal increases in amplitude.

Three transistor operating modes:

IB = 0

Cutoff

IB > 0

IB >> 0

Linear
(PC > 0)

PC = 0 in both of these modes

Saturation

Distortionless amplifier
Out

of the 3 amplifiers, Class C is unsuitable as the


distortion is very heavy
Class A is the best, as it gives distortionless output
But Class A cannot handle large signals as required
by the Power Amplifier
Though Class B gives heavy distortion, it gives out
one half of the signal perfectly
And Class B can handle large signals

Class A Audio Amplifier


As

we have seen out of the 3 classifications, Class


A is the best, as it does not give any distortion
Among the configurations, we know that CE is the
best as it gives maximum power gain
A CE amplifier will have high output impedance
Unfortunately for an audio amplifier, the output
device is the speaker which has a low impedance

Impedance Matching
The

speaker impedance is typically about 4


Hence there is a mismatch between the high Zo of
the amplifier and the low impedance of the speaker
This will result in loss of gain
This can be avoided by connecting a transformer at
the output stage
The primary winding will match the high Zo of the
amplifier while the secondary will match the low
impedance of the speaker

Class A Audio Amplifier


Vcc

Rb1
270 K

Rb2

Rb1

Rc
5.6 K

Re

270 K

Ce

Rb2

Re

Ce

Drawback
The

drawback of this circuit is that it cannot


handle large signals
In a Class A amplifier, the operating point is
chosen around the middle of the load line
If the signal exceeds the cut-off point, the output
current stops and any signal with a lower
amplitude will not come at the output
Similarly, if the signal exceeds the saturation point,
the output current cannot increase any further,
even if the input signal increases

Ic

Class A

B
Ib = 60A

10mA

Ib = 50A

8mA

Q
6mA

Ib = 40A

Ib = 30A

4mA

Ib = 20A

2mA

A
0V

24 V

Vce

Class B Push-Pull Amplifier


To avoid

this we can use Class B which has a


greater signal handling capacity
But Class B will give only one half of the signal
Hence we can use 2 Class B amplifiers
One for one half and one for the other half
This type of amplifier is called Push-Pull
Amplifier

Vcc

T1

TR1

TR2

T3
T2

Class B Push-Pull

Push-Pull Circuit
TR1

and TR2 are output transistors connected


back to back, with their emitters grounded
The output transformer TR1 couples the push-pull
output to the speaker
In the Push-Pull arrangement T1 conducts for one
half of the signal & T2 conducts for the other half
Both are biased in Class B and each gives one half
of the signal & the combined output is coupled to
the speaker

Push-Pull Circuit
The

Driver Transformer TR2 gives 2 out of phase


signals
During one half, the +ve half forward biases T1
while the ve half reverse biases T2
Thus when T1 conducts, T2 is cut-off & viceversa
This way both the transistors conduct alternately
to give the full signal output

Class D Amplifier
During the +ve half cycle Q1 gets Forward Bias and it
conducts
During the -ve half cycle Q2 gets Forward Bias and it
conducts
Thus both the transistors conduct alternately
The amplifier works for 3600
No distortion
100% efficiency

Working of Push-Pull Circuit


Vcc
During

the first half T1


conducts
Ic flows from the
centre-tapping through
T1 to ground
This half is coupled to
the speaker through
TR1

T1
TR2

T
3

T2

TR1

Working of Push-Pull Circuit


Vcc
During

the second half


T2 conducts
Ic flows from the
centre-tapping through
T2 to ground
This half is coupled to
the speaker through
TR1

T1
TR2

T
3

T2

TR1

Drawbacks
Though

this circuit functions well it has a few


drawbacks
Transformer coupling affects the quality of
output
Phase shifting circuit is a must
Both these drawbacks can be avoided if we use
one pair of PNP and NPN transistors at the
output

Vcc

Complementary Symmetry Amplifier

T1

T2

Complementary Symmetry Amplifier

This circuit uses one NPN transistor & one PNP


transistor at the output stage

During the +ve half, T1(NPN) base gets forward bias &
it conducts while T2 (PNP) gets reverse biased and does
not conduct

This gives one half of the signal at the speaker coupled


to the emitter

Complementary Symmetry Amplifier


During

the other half, T2 gets forward bias


and conducts while T1 gets reverse biased and
does not conduct

Thus

T1 & T2 conduct alternately giving a


distortionless output

This

circuit does not require a phase shifter

Cross over distortion


Class

B Push-Pull amplifier has one limitation


As the phase of the signal changes from +ve to ve
(or vice-versa) one transistor stops conducting
while the other begins conducting
But the transistor cannot conduct instantaneously
as it requires a minimum Vbe before it starts
conducting
Thus as the signal crosses over zero, a distortion
occurs
This is called Cross over distortion

Cross over distortion


Vbe
-Vbe

Class AB amplifier
This

circuit overcomes cross-over distortion


Biasing is done such that even if there is no input
signal, a small current keeps the output transistor
conducting
This circuit uses 2 diodes whose characteristics
matches with that of the BE junction of the output
transistors
Biasing resistors R1 & R2 are also identical values

Vcc

Class AB amplifier
R1

T1

D1
D2

R2

T2

Symmetrical components
Since

R1 & D1 are identical to R2 & D2, the diode


junction as well as the output point will be at half
the supply voltage
Because of symmetry both T1 & T2 will conduct
equally
Even when there is no input signal, there will be a
current Icq = (I/2 Vcc 0.6) / R1
This will keep the output transistors conducting

Elimination of cross-over distortion


Normally, during

cross-over there will not be any


output till the non-conducting transistor gets the
minimum Vbe
This causes distortion
This has been eliminated here, since the 0.6 V
across the diodes keep the transistors on and gives
a continuous output signal without producing
cross-over distortion

Thermal stability
In

addition, the two diodes also provide thermal


stability
They prevent the output transistors going to
Thermal Run Away
When the output current is high, heat dissipation is
more
The increase in temperature produces more charge
carrier in the BE junction of T1 & T2

This

increases Ib & hence Ic


This in turn increases the power dissipation &
hence the heat
This chain goes on till too much current flows and
destroys the transistors
This is called Thermal Run Away
This is arrested by the diodes in the output circuit

When

the charge carriers increase in the B-E


junction of T1 & T2, a similar increase takes place
in D1 & D2, due to matching characteristics
This increase in the diode current, produces more
drop across R1 & R2 and brings down the forward
bias at the base of T1 & T2
Thus the 2 diodes prevent cross-over distortion as
well as provide thermal stability

A switch-mode amplifier uses a


rectangular input signal to drive the
transistor rapidly between cutoff and
saturation. The efficiency is very high.
They are also
called Class D
amplifiers.

B
RB

C
E

If the switching frequency is a good deal higher


than the signal frequency, a Class D amplifier is
capable of linear amplification. Pulse-width
modulation and a low-pass filter are often used.

PWM Signal

Input Signal

PWM

LPF

The low-pass filter rejects


the switching frequency.

Class C and D quiz


Class C amplifiers use _______ circuits to
restore sinusoidal signals.
tank
The base-emitter junction in a class C
amplifier is ________ biased. reverse
The theoretical maximum efficiency for
class C is ___________.
100%
Class D amplifiers are also known as
__________ amplifiers.
switch-mode
Class D amplifiers employ a varying dutycycle known as _________.
PWM

Concept Review
Class C amplifiers are biased beyond cutoff for a
small conduction angle and high efficiency.
Class C amplifiers used tuned tank circuits to
reduce distortion in RF applications.
Class C amplifiers cannot be used in wideband
applications like audio.
Class D amplifiers switch between cutoff and
saturation for very high efficiency.
Class D amplifiers operate at a relatively high
switching frequency and often use PWM.
Class D can be used in audio applications.
Repeat Segment

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