Measurement Scales

Definition

• Measurement is to discover the extent,

dimension, quantity or capacity of
something, especially by comparison
with a standard.

• Measurement in research consists of

assigning numbers to empirical events
in compliance with the set of rules.
 Three parts of measurement

• Selecting a observable empirical events

• Developing a set of mapping rules: a
scheme for assigning numbers or
symbols to represent aspects of the
event being measured.
• Applying the mapping rule(s) to each
observation of that event.
 Goal of measurement

• To provide the highest quality, lowest

error data for testing hypotheses.
 Must know…..

• Concept
• Construct
• Constitutive Concept
• Operational Concept
 Characteristics of a Good
measurement

• Unidimensionality
• Linearity
• Validity
• Reliability
• Accuracy and precision
• Simplicity
• Practicability
 Investigative
Que
Moving from
What do I plan to do with the data
Investigative
Description? Que to
Exploration? Measurement
Discovering of difference?
Que.
Finding of relationships?

Is dn Type of data? How many

expected to groups will be
be normal? Nominal compared?

What is my Ordinal Are groups

expected related or
sample size? Interval independent?
Ratio

What Measurement Scale should I use?

Measurement
Que
 Measurement Scales

• Nominal scale
• Ordinal Scale
• Interval Scale
• Ratio Scale
 Nominal Scale

• Most elementary method of

measurement.

• Categorical data and numbers that are

simply used as identifiers or names.

• Mutually exclusive and collectively

exhaustive.
 Nominal Scale Cont…

• Numbers doesn't have any quantitative

value.

• Arithmetic opn. – Counting

• Mode is the only measure of central

tendency.
 Nominal Scale Cont…

Examples:
Numbers on Cricket players' jerseys
that are used to identify each player.

Classifying data, e.g. m/f

No ordering, e.g. it makes no sense to

state that M > F

Arbitrary labels, e.g., m/f, 0/1, etc

 Ordinal Scale

• Numbers, letters or numerals are

used to rank objects.

• Relative position of two or more

objects on some characteristic.

• Used in Customer-oriented research.

 Ordinal Scale Cont…

• Doesn’t provide how much less or more the

attribute is.

• size of the interval between any two

numerals is unknown.

• Operations: Mode, Median, Non parametric

tests.
 Ordinal Scale Cont…

Examples:
Grades scored by students at IBS.
Rank preferences for several brands,
flavors.
Restaurants ranked from most like to
least liked.
Movie Ratings.
 Interval Scale

• Also uses numerals to rank objects.

• Numerically equal distances on the

scale represent equal distances in the
property being measured.

• Arbitrary zero i.e. no natural zero.

 Interval Scale Cont…

• Descriptive measures: mean, median,

mode, range and standard deviation.

• Bi-variate correlation analysis, t-test,

analysis of variance tests.
 Interval Scale Cont…

Examples:
Centigrade and Fahrenheit temperature scales.
Measurement of Sea Level.
Personality measures.

Differences make sense, but ratios do not

(e.g., 30°-20°=20°-10°, but 20°/10° is not
twice as hot!)
 Ratio Scale

• All properties of Interval.

• True, Natural or Absolute Zero.
• Value of zero on a ratio scale
indicates the complete absence of
the characteristic of interest.
• All Descriptive measures and
inferential techniques are applicable
to ratio-measured data.
 Ratio Scale Cont…

Examples:
Length, time, force, volume and area.
A negative length is not possible.
Temperature in Kelvin.
Quantitative data such as interval or
ratio data can be converted to
categories on a qualitative scale but not
Vice Versa.
 Fundamental Difference

Indicates Indicates direction Indicate Absolute

Difference of Difference amount of Zero
Difference
Nominal 

Ordinal  

Interval   

Ratio    
 Permissible Arithmetic Operations

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Counting Greater Addition or Multiplication

than or Subtraction or Division of
Smaller of scale scale values
than values
 Examples of Appropriate Statistics

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Chi Square Median, Mean, SD, Coefficient

Runs test Interquartile t –test, of Variation
range, ANOVA,
Spearman's rank Regression
correlation,
Kolmogorov-
smirnov test,
Mann-Whitney U
 Reliability

• Meaning:
• The extent to which the instrument
yields the same results on repeated
trials.
• Consistency
• Free from error
 Reliability Cont…

• Examples:
• ordinal measures are reliable if they
consistently rank order items in the same
manner
• reliable interval measures consistently rank
order and maintain the same distance
between items.
 Concept of Reliability

• Two Dimensions
• Repeatability
• Internal Consistency
 Tests of Reliability

• Retest Method

• Same test is given to the same people after

a period of time.
• Examination of consistency
• Eg. Measuring Satisfaction level
 Tests of Reliability Cont…

• Problems:
• Time delays between measurement
• Insufficient time between measurements
• Respondent’s discernment of a disguised
purpose
• Topic sensitivity
• Introduction of extraneous moderating variables
between measurements
 Equivalent Form Method

• Two measurement scales of a similar

nature are developed

• Measure the correlation of scores

generated by two instruments.
 Equivalent form Method Contd..

• Problem
• Framing two totally equivalent
questionnaires
 Internal Consistency method

• Testing whether the data give same

results even after some manipulations.

• Example
 Internal Consistency method
Contd..

• Problem:
• Dependent on data manipulation or
divisions
 Cronbach’s Alpha

Where
N = Number of items
= Sum of item variance
= Variance of the total composite
 Kuder Richardson Formula-20

• In case of difficulty in obtaining the

data at equal interval of time
 Validity

• Ability of a scale or a measuring instrument

to measure what it is intended to measure

• Does the instrument really measure what

its designer claims it does?
 Example

• Validity of an exam

• Measure of the morale of employees

based on their absenteeism alone

 Classification of Validity

• Face Validity

• Collective agreement of experts and

researchers on the validity of the
measurement scale
• Experts determine if the scale is measuring
what it is expected to measure
 Classification of validity

• Content Validity
• Adequacy in the selection of relevant
variables for measurement
• Measurement contains a
representative sample of the universe
of subject matter of interest : Content
Validity is good
 Classification of validity

• Determination of content validity

• Intuitive logical process by research
designer
• Use a panel of persons to judge how
well the instrument meets the
standards
 Classification of validity

“ Content Validity is primarily

concerned with inferences about
test construction rather than the
inferences about the test scores ”
 Classification of validity

• Criterion Related Validity

• Degree to which a measurement
instrument can analyze a variable
• If a new measure is developed, it must
correlate with other measures of the
same construct
 Classification of validity

• Criterion related validity can be

categorized as :
• Predictive Validity
• Concurrent Validity
 Classification of validity

• Predictive validity
• The extent to which a future level of a
criterion variable can be predicted by a
current measurement on a scale
 Classification of validity

• Concurrent validity
• Related with the relationship
between predictor variable and
criterion variable ; evaluated at the
same point of time
 Classification of validity

• Construct Validity
• Degree to which a measurement
instrument represents and logically
connects through the underlying
theory
 Classification of validity

• Example
• A particular product purchased by a
consumer or not, is not the question ;
why he has or has not purchased the
product is taken into account to judge
construct validity
 Classification of validity

• Construct Validity is classified as

• Convergent validity
• Discriminant validity
 Classification of validity

• Convergent Validity
• Extent of correlation among different measures that
are intended to measure the same concept

• Discriminant Validity
• Denotes the lack of or low correlation among the
constructs that are supposed to be different
 Classification of validity

• Sensitivity
• Ability to accurately measure variability in
responses
• Generalization
• Amount of flexibility in interpreting the data in
different research designs.
• Relevance
• Appropriateness of using a particular scale for measuring variable.
Understanding Reliability and Validity
 Sources of measurement problems

RESPONDENT ASSOCIATED ERRORS:

Non-Response Errors
It includes,
• Failure to respond completely
• Failure to respond to one or more questions of the surveyor
• Unit non-response, Item non-response
Response bias
 Sources of measurement problems

• INSTRUMENT ASSOCIATED ERROR

• Poor questionnaire design

• Improper selection of samples

• Complex questionnaire
 Sources of measurement problems

• SITUATIONAL ERRORS
• Example: Location of the interview

• MEASURER AS ERROR SOURCE

• Body language and gestures
• Failure to record the full response
• Using irrelevant statistical tools