3 Eddy Current NDE

3.1

Inspection Techniques

3.2

Instrumentation

3.3

Typical Applications

3.4

Special Example

3.1 Inspection Techniques

Coil Configurations
voltmeter

voltmeter

oscillator

oscillator

voltmeter

~~

oscillator

Zo

excitation
coil

excitation
coil

coil

sensing coil
testpiece

Hall or GMR detector

testpiece

testpiece

differential coils

parallel

coaxial

rotated

Remote-Field Eddy Current Inspection

ferromagnetic pipe

exciter coil

Remote Field

Near Field

sensing coil

Remote Field

ln(Hz)
low frequency operation (10-100 Hz)

1
f r 0

Exponentially decaying eddy currents

propagating mainly on the outer surface
cause a diffuse magnetic field that leaks both
on the outside and the inside of the pipe.

H z H z 0 e z /
z

Main Modes of Operation

time-multiplexed multiple-frequency

Signal

Signal

single-frequency

Time

Time

frequency-multiplexed multiple-frequency
Signal

Signal

pulsed

Time

Time

D l 2

excited signal (current)

detected signal (voltage)

Nonlinear Harmonic Analysis

single frequency, linear response

Signal

ferromagnetic phase
(ferrite, martensite, etc.)
B

Time
nonlinear harmonic analysis

Signal

Time

3.2 Eddy Current

Instrumentation

Single-Frequency Operation
Vr

oscillator

90 phase
shifter

driver
amplifier
driver
impedances

Vq

low-pass
filter
A/D
converter
low-pass
filter

Vm

processor
phase
balance
V-gain
H-gain

probe coil(s)

Vm Vs cos(t s ),

Vr Vo cos(t ),

Vq Vo sin(t )

Vm Vr Vs cos(t s )Vo cos(t )

1
Vs Vo cos(s ) cos(2t s )
2

Vm Vq Vs cos(t s )Vo sin(t )

1
Vs Vo sin(s ) sin(2t s )
2

V
Vm Vr o Vs cos(s ),
2

V
Vm Vq o Vs sin(s )
2

display

Nonlinear Harmonic Operation

Vr

oscillator

n divider

90 phase
shifter

driver
amplifier
driver
impedances

Vq

Vm

low-pass
filter
A/D
converter
low-pass
filter
processor
phase
balance
V-gain
H-gain

probe coil(s)

Vm Vs1 cos(t s1) Vs2 cos(2t s2 ) Vs3 cos(3t s3 ) ...

Vr Vo cos(nt )

V
Vm Vr o Vsn cos(sn )
2

Vq Vo sin( nt )

V
Vm Vq o Vsn sin(sn )
2

display

Specialized versus General Purpose

Nortec 2000S system

Agilent 4294A system*

frequency range*

0.1 10 MHz

0.1-80 MHz

probe coil

three pencil probes

single spiral coil

relative accuracy

0.1-0.2%

0.05-0.1%

frequency scanning

manual

electronic

measurement time

50 minutes for 21 points

3 minutes for 81 points

*high-frequency application

Probe Considerations
sensitivity

ferrite-core coil

air-core coil
high coupling

low coupling

high coupling

high coupling

eddy current

flat air-core coil

eddy current

high coupling

eddy current

thermal stability
I2

I1

V ZI
V

Z i L* Rwire

V1

V2

V1 Z11
V Z
2
12

Z 12
I1
Z I
22
2

*
Z12 i L12
11

12 , 21

22

topology

flexible, low self-capacitance, reproducible, interchangeable, economic, etc.

3.3 Eddy Current NDE

Applications
conductivity measurement
permeability measurement
metal thickness measurement
coating thickness measurements
flaw detection

3.3.1 Conductivity

Conductivity versus Probe Impedance

constant frequency

1
Titanium, 6Al-4V

Normalized Reactance

0.8

Inconel
Stainless
Steel, 304

0.6

Copper 70%,
Nickel 30%

0.4
Lead

0.2
Copper

Magnesium, A280
Nickel
Aluminum, 7075-T6

0
0

0.1

0.2
0.3
Normalized Resistance

0.4

0.5

Conductivity versus Alloying and Temper

IACS = International Annealed Copper Standard
IACS = 5.8107 -1m-1 at 20 C
IACS = 1.724110-8 m

60

Conductivity [% IACS]

2014

2024

6061

7075

50
T0

T0

40

T6

T72
T6

30

T6

T8

T0

T0

T73
T76

T4

T3 T4
T3 T4

20
Various Aluminum Alloys

T6

Apparent Eddy Current Conductivity

magnetic field
probe coil
specimen

Normalized Reactance

1.0
0.8
lift-off
curves

0.6
0.4

conductivity
(frequency)
curve

0.2
0
0

eddy currents

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Normalized Resistance

high accuracy ( 0.1 %)

controlled penetration depth

Normalized Reactance

= s

3
= 0

Normalized Resistance

0.5

Lift-Off Curvature
inductive
(low frequency)
lift-off

=0

=s

lift-off

=0

2
conductivity

Vertical Component.

Vertical Component.

=s

capacitive
(high frequency)

conductivity

Horizontal Component

Horizontal Component

Inductive Lift-Off Effect

4 mm diameter
1.5 %IACS

8 mm diameter
1.5 %IACS

Instrument Calibration
conductivity spectra comparison on IN718 specimens of
different peening intensities

Nortec 2000S, Agilent 4294A, Stanford Research SR844, and UniWest US-450

3.3.2 Permeability

Magnetic Susceptibility
paramagnetic materials with small ferromagnetic phase content
moderately high susceptibility

low susceptibility
1.0

4
r = 4

permeability

2
1

1
0

frequency
(conductivity)

Normalized Reactance

Normalized Reactance

permeability

0.8
lift-off

0.6

frequency
(conductivity)

0.4
0.2
0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

1
Normalized Resistance

1.2

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Normalized Resistance

increasing magnetic susceptibility decreases the

apparent eddy current conductivity (AECC)

0.5

Magnetic Susceptibility versus Cold Work

cold work (plastic deformation at room temperature) causes
martensitic (ferromagnetic) phase transformation
in austenitic stainless steels

Magnetic Susceptibility

101

SS304L
SS302
SS304

100
10-1
10-2

SS305

10-3

IN718
IN625
IN276

10-4
0

10

20

30
Cold Work [%]

40

50

60

3.3.3 Metal Thickness

Thickness versus Normalized Impedance

scanning
probe coil

thickness loss due to corrosion, erosion, etc.

1
0.8

thinning
lift-off

0.6
0.4

thick
plate

0.2

f = 0.05 MHz
f = 0.2 MHz
f = 1 MHz

0.8
Re { F }

Normalized Reactance

aluminum ( = 46 %IACS)

0.6
0.4

F ( x ) e x / e i x /

0.2

thin
plate

0
-0.2
0

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Normalized Resistance

0.6

2
Depth [mm]

Thickness Correction
Vic-3D simulation, Inconel plates ( = 1.33 %IACS)
ao = 4.5 mm, ai = 2.25 mm, h = 2.25 mm

Conductivity [%IACS]

1.4

1.3

thickness
1.0 mm
1.5 mm
2.0 mm
2.5 mm
3.0 mm
3.5 mm
4.0 mm
5.0 mm
6.0 mm

1.2

1.1

1.0
0.1

1
Frequency [MHz]

10

3.3.4 Coating Thickness

Non-conducting Coating
probe coil, ao

non-conducting
coating

t
d

conducting substrate
ao > t, d > , AECL = + t

ao = 4 mm, simulated
63.5 m
50.8 m
38.1 m
25.4 m
19.1 m
12.7 m
6.4 m
0 m

1
10
100
Frequency [MHz]

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0.1

AECL [m]

lift-off:

AECL [m]

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0.1

ao = 4 mm, experimental

1
10
100
Frequency [MHz]

Conducting Coating
probe coil, ao

conducting
coating

z = e
z

Je

conducting substrate (s,s)

approximate:

large transducer, weak perturbation

equivalent depth:

e s
2

1
AECC( f ) e
2 f

s s

( z ) AECC

4 z2
s s

analytical:

Fourier decomposition (Dodd and Deeds)

numerical:

finite element, finite difference, volume integral, etc.

(Vic-3D, Opera 3D, etc.)

Simplistic Inversion of AECC Spectra

0.254-mm-thick surface layer of 1% excess conductivity
1.2
AECC Change [%]

uniform

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0.001

0.1

10

1000

Frequency [MHz]
1.2
AECC Change [%]

Gaussian

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0.001

0.1

10

1000

Frequency [MHz]

3.3.5 Flaw Detection

Impedance Diagram
1

Normalized Reactance

0.8

conductivity
(frequency)

lift-off
0.6
crack
depth

0.4

flawless
material

2
0.2

0.1

0.2
0.3
0.4
Normalized Resistance

apparent eddy current conductivity (AECC) decreases

apparent eddy current lift-off (AECL) increases

0.5

Crack Contrast and Resolution

Vic-3D simulation
ao = 1 mm, ai = 0.75 mm, h = 1.5 mm

probe coil

austenitic stainless steel, = 2.5 %IACS, r = 1

f = 5 MHz, 0.19 mm

crack
1

-10% threshold

Normalized AECC

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
semi-circular crack

detection
threshold

2
3
Flaw Length [mm]

Eddy Current Images of Small Fatigue Cracks

probe coil
crack

0.5 0.5, 2 MHz, 0.060-diameter coil

Al2024, 0.025 crack

Ti-6Al-4V, 0.026-crack

Crystallographic Texture
J E
generally anisotropic

J1 1 0
J 0
2
2
J 3 0 0

hexagonal (transversely isotropic)

J1

J
2

J 3

0 E1
0 E
2
3 E3

1 0
0 2
0 0

0
0

E1
E
2
E3

cubic (isotropic)

J1

J
2

J 3

1 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 1

E1

E
2
E3

x1

x3

basal plane

x2

surface plane

1 2

conductivity normal to the basal plane

n () 1 cos 2 2 sin 2

conductivity in the basal plane

m () 1 sin 2 2 cos 2

polar angle from the normal of the basal plane

M 2

minimum conductivity in the surface plane

a () [1 sin 2 2 (1 cos 2 )]

maximum conductivity in the surface plane

average conductivity in the surface plane

Electric Birefringence Due to Texture

500 kHz, racetrack coil
equiaxed GTD-111

1.05

1.40

1.04

1.38

Conductivity [%IACS]

Conductivity [%IACS]

highly textured Ti-6Al-4V plate

1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00

1.36
1.34
1.32
1.30

30 60 90 120 150 180

Azimuthal Angle [deg]

30 60 90 120 150 180

Azimuthal Angle [deg]

Grain Noise in Ti-6Al-4V

1 1, 2 MHz, 0.060-diameter coil
as-received billet material

solution treated and

annealed

heat-treated, coarse

heat-treated, very coarse

heat-treated, large colonies

equiaxed beta annealed

Eddy Current versus Acoustic Microscopy

1 1, coarse grained Ti-6Al-4V sample

5 MHz eddy current

40 MHz acoustic

Inhomogeneity
AECC Images of Waspaloy and IN100 Specimens

inhomogeneous Waspaloy

homogeneous IN100

4.2 2.1, 6 MHz

2.2 1.1, 6 MHz

conductivity range 1.38-1.47 %IACS

conductivity range 1.33-1.34 %IACS

3 % relative variation

0.4 % relative variation

Conductivity Material Noise

as-forged Waspaloy
1.50
1.48
1.46

AECC [%IACS]

1.44
1.42
1.40
1.38
1.36

Spot 1 (1.441 %IACS)

1.34

Spot 2 (1.428 %IACS)

Spot 3 (1.395 %IACS)

1.32

Spot 4 (1.382% IACS)

1.30
0.1

1
Frequency [MHz]
no (average) frequency dependence

10

Magnetic Susceptibility Material Noise

1 1, stainless steel 304
intact

0.510.260.03 mm3 edm notch

f = 0.1 MHz, AECC 6.4 %

f = 0.1 MHz, AECC 8.6 %

f = 5 MHz, AECC 0.8 %

f = 5 MHz, AECC 1.2 %

3.4 Special Example

Residual Stress Assessment

Alternating Stress [MPa]

1500

1000

with opposite residual stress

service load

500

intact (no residual stress)

natural
life time

0
10 2

endurance
limit

increased
life time

10 4
10 6
Fatigue Life [cycles]

108

Residual stresses have numerous origins that are highly variable.

Residual stresses relax at service temperatures.

Surface-Enhancement Techniques
Laser Shock Peening (LSP)

200

50

40
Cold Work [%]

Residual Stress [MPa]

Shot Peening (SP)

-200
-400

Ti-6Al-4V
SP Almen 4A
SP Almen 12A
LSP
LPB

-600
-800

-1000

0.2

0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]

1.0

Low-Plasticity Burnishing (LPB)

Ti-6Al-4V
SP Almen 4A
SP Almen 12A
LSP
LPB

30
20
10

1.2

0.2

0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]

1.0

1.2

Piezoresistive Effect
parallel, normal, circular
F

1 / 0
11
/
2
0

12
3 / 0
12

12
11
12

12
12

11

1 / E
2 / E

3 / E

Isotropic Plane-Stress ( 1 2 ip and 3 0 ) :

a / 0
11 12
ip / E

Adiabatic Electroelastic Coefficients:

*
11
11 th
*
12
12 th

80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40

1.403
1.402
1.401
1.4
1.399
1.398
1.397

Time [1 s/div]
IN 718, parallel

Conductivity [%IACS]

ip

Axial Stress [ksi]

Electroelastic Tensor:

Time [1 s/div]

Material Types
Al 2024

Ti-6Al-4V

0.004

parallel
normal

0.002

parallel
normal

-0.002

-0.002

-0.002

-0.004
-0.002

-0.004
-0.001

-0.004
-0.001

0.002

0.002 0.004

0.001 0.002

0.001 0.002

ua / E

ua / E

ua / E

Waspaloy

IN718

Copper

0.004

parallel
normal

0.002

0.004

parallel
normal

0.002

0.004

0.002

0.002

0.004

parallel
normal

0.004

Al 7075

parallel
normal

-0.002

-0.002

-0.002

-0.004
-0.002

-0.004
-0.002

-0.004
-0.001

0.002 0.004

ua / E

0.002 0.004

ua / E

0.001 0.002

ua / E

XRD and AECC Measurements

Waspaloy

Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A

-1000
-1500
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]

30

10
0

0.8

500

50

40

-500
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A

-1000
-1500
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]

Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A

20

0.2

1
0
-1
0.1

0.8

30
Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A

20

Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A

1
Frequency [MHz]

10

10
0.8

0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]

Conductivity Change [%]

Cold Work [%]

40

-500

-2000

3
Conductivity Change [%]

-2000

Residual Stress [MPa]

50

Cold Work [%]

Residual Stress [MPa]

500

0.2

0.4
0.6
Depth [mm]

0.8

2
1

Almen 4A
Almen 8A
Almen 12A
Almen 16A

0
-1
0.1

1
Frequency [MHz]

before (solid circles) and after full relaxation for 24 hrs at 900 C (empty circles)

10

Thermal Stress Relaxation in Waspaloy

Waspaloy, Almen 8A, repeated 24-hour heat treatments at increasing temperatures

Apparent Conductivity Change [% ]

0.6
intact
300 C
350 C
400 C
450 C
500 C
550 C
600 C
650 C
700 C
750 C
800 C
850 C
900 C

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1

0.16

0.25

0.4

0.63

1.6

2.5

6.3

Frequency [MHz]
The excess apparent conductivity gradually vanishes during thermal relaxation!

10

XRD versus Eddy Current

inversion of measured AECC in low-plasticity burnished Waspaloy

20

1.2

200

eddy current

XRD

.
Residual Stress [MPa]

15

0.8

Cold Work [%]

AECC Change [%]

1.0

0.6
0.4
0.2

10

-400
-600
-800

-1000

0.0
-0.2
0.01

-200

XRD
eddy current

-1200
0.1
1
Frequency [MHz]

10

0.0

0.5
1.0
Depth [mm]

1.5

-1400

0.0

0.5
1.0
Depth [mm]

1.5

XRD versus High-Frequency Eddy

Current
shot peened IN100 specimens of Almen 4A, 8A and 12A peening intensity levels