Ultrasonic Equipment and Accessories

Transducers
The

term transducer refers to the main

probing element which acts both as,

a
transmitter
converting
electrical
oscillation into mechanical vibrations
and, conversely, as a receiver
Transducers

capable
of
producing
ultrasound within the standard testing
frequencies can be grouped into two
categories, depending on the physical
principle they are based on,
Piezoelectric transducers
Electrostrictive transducers

Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric

transducers are made

up of a material (quartz, for
example)
characterized
by
piezoelectricity, which is the
ability that certain crystalline
structures
have
to
charge
themselves electrically when they
are
mechanically
deformed.
(Direct piezoelectric effect)

Vice

versa if we apply voltage to

opposite surfaces of the material,
we
obtain
a
mechanical
deformation
of
the
crystal.
(Converse piezoelectric effect)

Electrostrictive
Transducers

Electrostrictive

transducers
are
composed of ferroelectric materials,
usually plates of BaTiO3, LiSO4,
PbNb2O6 and are based on the
physical
principle
of
electrostriction.

At

a macroscopic level
phenomenon
is
similar
piezoelectricity.

this
to

Types of Ultrasonic
Transducers
Straight

beam transducers

Straight beam ultrasonic probe

generates a beam perpendicular
to the incidence surface of the
test piece.
Diameter of these probes can
vary from 4 to 30 mm, and the
most usual frequencies range
between 1 and 25 MHz , the
waves emitted are Longitudinal.

Piece

Types of Ultrasonic
Transducers
Angle

beam transducers

In
angled
transducers
the
refracted
beam
consists
of
transverse waves.
In facts, the transducer emits a
beam of longitudinal waves which
divides
into
reflected
and
refracted beams following the
reflection and refraction laws.
For industrial use normally have
frequencies ranging between 2
and 5 MHz

Piece

Types of Ultrasonic
Transducers
Twin crystal transducers
Due to the presence of the
dead zone the flaws which
are very close to the beam
entry surface
cannot be
detected;
However, this dead zone
can be almost completely
eliminated by means of two
coupled transducers.

Types of Ultrasonic
Transducers
Wheel-type transducers
Wheel-type transducers allow large
flat surfaces to be tested in a short
time.
Generally used to test sheet steel.
Around the central axis, where the
probe
is
fixed,
a
cylindrical
chamber with a double rubber
membrane is free to rotate on two
ball bearings.
The lowest part of the chamber is
usually filled with liquid through
which
the
ultrasonic
beam
is
transmitted to the piece being tested.

Types of Ultrasonic
Transducers
Water-column transducers
To carry out rapid testing of
pipes, sheet steel etc.,
water-column transducers
are sometimes used.
Acoustic coupling with the
test pieces is carried out by
means of a water column.

Piece being
tested

Types of Ultrasonic
Transducers

Immersion transducers

Immersion
transducers
are
practically same as
contact
transducers, with the two
transducer elements on the
sides of the plate, except that
they do not have a protective
layer and are perfectly water
tight.
There are two types;

Flat transducers,
Focused transducers.

Flat
transducer

Water

Piece

Focused
transducer

Water
Piece

Ultrasonic Equipment
Following
functions
are
carried out by non-destructive
ultrasonic testing equipment.

It provides the electrical

signal
that
the
transmitting probe is to
transform into sound wave;

It
receives
the
electrical
signal
from the receiving
probe and amplifies it;

It displays the signals,

both emitted and received,
on a screen

Ultrasonic Equipment
The screen can be:
A Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT),
as
found
in
traditional equipment,

A Liquid Crystal Screen,

as found in modern
digital equipment.

Block Diagram of a Traditional

Unit for Non-destructive
Ultrasonic Testing

It comprises the
following elements:
Synchronizer/ Timer
Transmitter/ Pulser
Delay
Sweep Generator
Receiver
Cathode Ray Tube

Cathode Ray Tube

Cathode ray tubes consist
of a glass case, in high
vacuum, containing the
following parts.
Cathode
Adjustment grid
Focusing device
Anode
Horizontal deflection
plates
Vertical deflection plates
Fluorescent screen

CRT
The cathode, the adjustment grid, the focusing
device and the anode make up the electron gun.

CRT
Cathode
The (negatively charged)
cathode
undergoes
strong heating due to the
Joule effect.
It then releases electrons
that are sent to the
anode (positive) from the
electric
field
created
between the cathode and
the anode.
Where
the
luminous
beam meets the screen a
light
spot
will
be
produced.

CRT
Adjustment Grid
The brightness of the display is controlled by
the adjustment grid, which allows more or less
electrons to pass.
Focusing Device
This constricts the electron flow into a narrow
beam.
Horizontal and Vertical (X & Y) Deflection
Plates
The horizontal and vertical movements of the
electron beam are controlled by the X and Y
plates respectively.

Synchronizer/Timer
The

synchronizer emits, at a fixed

frequency, pulses that control both the
pulser and the scanning voltage
generator.
This controls the PRF (Pulse Repetition
Frequency)
The number of pulses transmitted in the unit
of time (expressed in Hz) is called PRF.
PRF

is automatically set by the

equipment when the test range is set.

PRF depends on thickness of the material.

Transmitter/ Pulser
Also

called signal generator.

The transmitter emits a very
short voltage pulse with a peak
value.
This is sent to the probe on one
side and directly to the receiver
on the other and also triggers the
sweep generator.
This will display the initial pulse
on the screen.

Sweep / Time-Base
Generator
With

every synchronizer command pulse,

the sweep generator produces a saw-tooth
voltage signal.
This voltage, if applied to the X-plates of
CRT, deflects the electron beam spot from
left to right across the CRT screen with a
uniform speed.
The time it takes for the saw-tooth voltage
to rise determines the deflection speed of
the electronic beam and, with it, the full
scale depth of the instrument: steeper the
signal rise, smaller the full scale depth.

Delay Circuit
The

delay circuit creates a phase difference

between the moments the saw-tooth generator
and the pulse generator are activated.
In
testing with transducers, the beam
generating plane does not coincide with the
beam entry surface.

By delaying scanning in relation to

transmission time, it is possible to compensate
for the time delay with which the beam
penetrates the test piece.
Delay adjustment affects position of the signal
on the screen but not its shape.

Receiver
The

receiver basically comprises:

An amplifier, with a series of attenuators to

adjust the amplification level.
A detector circuit which rectifies and integrates
the amplified signal.
The

following enter the receiver, in sequence:

The pulse coming directly from the transmitter;

The pulse supplied by the transducer in reception.
Gain

Control and Reject are also

associated with the receiver circuit.

Receiver
The

receiver cannot receive signals until the

emission pulse is finished. During this time it is
therefore
impossible
to
detect
reflecting
discontinuities located near the surface of the test
piece.
The dead zone is the length, in mm, of the
section of the time axis line reached by the output
pulse where reflecting discontinuities of the
material being tested cannot be detected.
The
resolving power of the equipmenttransducer combination, or rather its capacity to
clearly detect two or more discontinuities close to
each other, depends on the length of the echoes.

ECHO PRESENTATION
In ultrasonic testing the signal from
a discontinuity in the test piece can
show itself in one of three ways.
A-scan presentation
B-scan presentation
C-scan presentation

A-Scan Presentation
The

discontinuity is
represented on the
screen of a cathodic
ray tube as a peak
(echo).
The distance of the peak
from zero on the time axis is
proportional to the path
covered by the beam before
it meets the discontinuity.
The peak amplitude is
proportional to the acoustic
pressure reflected by the
discontinuity.

B-Scan Presentation
The

discontinuity
is
displayed on the screen of a
CRT as it could be seen on a
cross-section of the test
piece.

The position of the discontinuity is

shown in a Cartesian plane system.
The presence of the discontinuity
cause no signal to be detected on
the line corresponding to the
bottom surface of the discontinuity
zone.
The
intensity
of
the
image
displayed
on
the
screen
is
proportional to the amplitude of the
pulse reflected by the discontinuity.

C-Scan Presentation
The

discontinuity
is
displayed on the screen as if
it were projected on a plane
parallel to the surface being
tested.

This presentation makes it possible

to estimate the extension (length
and width) of the discontinuity.
No data is given (or can be
obtained) regarding the depth of
the discontinuity in relation to the
surface.
This type of presentation is
generally used when UT is carried
out by means of automatic systems
combined
with
a
permanent
recording system.

Area-Amplitude Blocks

The blocks are used to determined

the relationship between flaw size
and
signal
amplitude
by
comparing signal responses for
the different sized holes.
Area-Amplitude
blocks
are
available in an eight block set.
They have a constant 3 inch metal
path distance with Flat Bottom
Holes (FBH).
Hole sizes are varied from 1/64 to
8/64 steps and numbered from 1
to 8.
Area amplitude blocks are also
available as square stocks of 115/16

2
3

FBH
1/64 to
8/64

Distance Amplitude
Blocks

Nineteen

block sets with FBHs of a single size

and varying metal path distances are available.
Sets have either a #3 (3/64) FBH, a #5 (5/64)
FBH or a #8 (8/64) FBH.
The metal path distances are 1/16, 1/8, ,
3/8, , 5/8, , 7/8, 1, 1-1/4, 1-3/4, 21/4, 2-3/4, 3-1/4, 3-3/4, 4-1/4, 4-3/4, 51/4 and 5-3/4.
They are also known as Alcoa Series B blocks
These blocks are designated by a 5-digit code.
E.g. 3-0075 stands for 3/64 dia. FBH with a
metal distance of 75/100 = 0.75 =

Questions
1.

The transducers used in ultrasonic

probes:
a. Transform an electrical signal into a
mechanical one
b. Transform a mechanical signal into an
electrical one
c. Can perform both conversions
d. The piezoelectric transducers transform an
electrical signal, the electrostrictive
transducers transform a mechanical signal

2.

The commonly used frequencies in straight

beam transducers are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

3.

1 25 MHz
10 40 MHz
15 60 MHz
60 100 MHz

In angle beam transducers the refracted

beam is composed of:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Lambs waves
Longitudinal waves
Shear waves
Longitudinal waves and Shear waves

The reject circuit is used to:

4.

a.
b.
c.
d.

5.

Attenuate signals
Define the full scale point
Eliminate the spurious signals
Define the maximum value of the acceptable signals

Going from 10 dB to 20 dB amplification, how

much will increase the signal :
a.
b.
c.
d.

About
About
About
About

2 times
3 times
10 times
20 times

6.

What can be evaluated with C-scan

presentation:
a.
b.
c.
d.

The depth of discontinuity

The length of discontinuity
Length and width of discontinuity
Length, width and depth of discontinuity