The Metallurgy of Welding;

Welding Design and Process

Selection
CHAPTER73

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2001PrenticeHall

Page291

Fusion Weld Zone

Figure 29.1 Characteristics

of a typical fusion weld
zone in oxyfuel gas and arc
welding. See also Figs.
27.16 and 28.14.

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2001PrenticeHall

Page292

Grain Structure in Shallow and Deep Welds

(a)

(b)

Figure 29.2 Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note
that the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular to the surface
of the base metal. In a good weld, the solidification line at the center in the
deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, which develops uniform
strength in the weld bead.

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Page293

Weld Beads
(a)

(b)

Figure 29.3 (a) Weld bead (on a cold-rolled nickel strip) produced by a laser beam. (b)
Microhardness profile across the weld bead. Note the lower hardness of the weld bead
compared to the base metal. Source: IIT Research Institute.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page294

Regions in a Fusion Weld Zone

Figure 29.4 Schematic
illustration of various regions
in a fusion weld zone (and
the corresponding phase
diagram) for 0.30% carbon
steel. Source: American
Welding Society.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page295

Corrosion
Figure 29.5 Intergranular
corrosion of a 310-stainless-steel
welded tube after exposure to a
caustic solution. The weld line is
at the center of the photograph.
Scanning electron micrograph at
20 X. Source: Courtesy of B. R.
Jack, Allegheny Ludlum Steel
Corp.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page296

Incomplete Fusion

Figure 29.6 Low-quality weld beads, the result of incomplete fusion. Source: American Welding
Society.

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ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page297

Discontinuities in Fusion Welds

Figure 29.7 Schematic illustration of various discontinuities in fusion welds. Source: American Welding
Society.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page298

Cracks in Welded Joints

Figure 29.8
Types of cracks
(in welded
joints) caused
by thermal
stresses that
develop during
solidification
and contraction
of the weld bead
and the
surrounding
structure. (a)
Crater cracks.
(b) Various
types of cracks
in butt and T
joints.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page299

Crack in a Weld Bead

Figure 29.9 Crack in a weld bead, due
to the fact that the two components were
not allowed to contract after the weld
was completed. Source: S. L. Meiley,
Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page2910

Distortion After Welding

Figure 29.10 Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints; (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused
by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

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Page2911

Residual Stresses Developed During Welding

Figure 29.11 Residual stresses developed during welding of a butt joint. Source: American
Welding Society.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page2912

Overview of Commercial Joining Processes

TABLE29.1OverviewofCommercialJoiningProcesses*

Material
Carbonsteel

Lowalloy
steel
Stainless
steel
Castiron
Nickeland
alloys

Thick
ness
S
I
M
T
S
I
M
T
S
I
M
T
I
M
T
S
I
M
T

S
M
A
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

S
A
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

G
M
A
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

F
C
A
W

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

G
T
A
W
x
x

JoiningProcess
P
A
W

E
S
W

x
x
x

R
W
x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

E
G
W

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

x
x
x

x
x
x

F
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

O
F
W
x
x
x
x
x

D
F
W

F
R
W
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

E
B
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

L
B
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Brazing
T
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x

2001PrenticeHall

x
x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

I
R
B
x

F
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

I
B
x
x
x

R
B
x
x

D
B
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x

Page2913

D
F
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Overview of Commercial Joining Processes

(cont.)
TABLE29.1(continued)

JoiningProcess
S
M
A
W
x
x
x
x

S
A
W

G
M
A
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

F
C
A
W

G
T
A
W
x
x
x

P
A
W
x

E
S
W

E
G
W

O
F
W
x

D
F
W
x
x

F
R
W
x
x
x

Thick
R
F
Material
ness
W
W
Aliminum
S
x
x
andalloys
I
x
x
M
x
T
x
x
x
Titanium
S
x
x
x
x
x
andalloys
I
x
x
x
x
x
M
x
x
x
x
x
T
x
x
Copperand
S
x
x
x
alloys
I
x
x
x
M
x
x
T
x
Magnesium
S
x
x
andalloys
I
x
x
x
x
M
x
x
T
x
Refractory
S
x
x
x
x
alloys
I
x
x
M
x
x
T
*Thistableispresentedasageneralsurveyonly.Inselectingprocessestobeusedwithspecificalloys,thereader
shouldrefertoother
appropriatesourcesofinformation.
Source:CourtesyoftheAmericanWeldingSociety.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

E
B
W
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

2001PrenticeHall

L
B
W
x
x

Brazing
T
B
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

F
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

I
B
x

x
x

R
B
x

D
B
x
x
x

I
R
B
x

x
x
x
x
x

Page2914

D
F
B
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

S
x
x

x
x

Overview of Commercial Joining Processes

(cont.)
TABLE29.1(continued)

Processcode
SMAWShieldedMetalArcWelding
SAWSubmergedArcWelding
GMAWGasMetalArcWelding
FCAWFluxCoredArcWelding
GTAWGasTungstenArcWelding
PAWPlasmaArcWelding
ESWElectroslagWelding
EGWElectrogasWelding
RWResistanceWelding
FWFlashWelding
OFWOxyfuelGasWelding
DFWDiffusionWelding

Legend

FRWFrictionWelding
EBWElectronBeamWelding
LBWLaserBeamWelding
TBTorchBrazing
FBFurnaceBrazing
IBInductionBrazing
RBResistanceBrazing
DBDipBrazing
IRBInfraredBrazing
DFBDiffusionBrazing
SSoldering

KalpakjianSchmid
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Thickness
SSheet:upto3mmin.B
IIntermediate:3to6mmAin.B
MMedium:6to19mmAin.B
TThick:19mmAin.Bandup

Page2915

Destructive Techniques
Figure 29.12 Two types of specimens for tension-shear
testing of welded joints.

Figure 29.13 (a) Wrap-around bend test method.

(b) Three-point bending of welded specimens--see
also Fig. 2.11.
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Page2916

Testing of Spot Welds

Figure 29.14 (a) Tensionshear test for spot welds.
(b) Cross-tension test. (c)
Twist test. (d) Peel test; see
also Fig. 30.8.

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ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

2001PrenticeHall

Page2917

Welding Design Guidelines

Figure 29.15 Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.), Handbook of Product Design for
Manufacturing. Copyright 1986, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission.

KalpakjianSchmid
ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology

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Page2918

Standard Identification and Symbols for Welds

Figure 29.16

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Page2919

Weld Design Selection

Figure 29.17

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Page2920