MONERA AND PROTISTA

Monera

Protista

Monera
Spirillum
Leptospirosi [leprosy]

Coccus

Bacilllus

Monera
Cyanobacteria - Gleocapsa

Monera
Cyanobacteria - Oscillatoria

Monera
Cyanobacteria - Anabaena

Monera
Cyanobacteria - Anabaena

The Five Kingdom classification

(Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes)
Monera : Eubacteria (includes the bluegreen algae)
algae and Archaebacteria
Protista (includes the algae)
algae
Fungi (includes the fungal component of
the lichens)
lichens
Plantae ( the true plants, comprising the
mosses, liverworts and hornworts which
are non-vascular, the seedless vascular
plants (ferns & fern-allies) and the seed
plants)
Animalia

Kingdom MONERA:
EUBACTERIA
CYANOPHYTA
the Blue-Green Algae

Blue-Green Algae
Phylum Cyanophyta
Habitat: widespread in marine
and fresh water
Notes:
Prokaryotic; no nuclear
membrane or organelles
Lacks cellulose cell walls and
flagella
Uses chlorophyll A, biliproteins,
and carotenoids
May be colonial, filamentous,
unicellular
Moves by extruding mucus

 Heterocysts fix N2 from atmosphere

Cyanobacteria

Characteristics of the Cyanophyta

(Cyanobacteria)
Contain chlorophyll a and carotenoids;
the phycobilins (proteinaceous
photosynthetic pigments);
phycocyanin and phycoerythrin (c f.
Rhodophyta), found in thylakoids

 Have cell walls of peptidoglycan, often

with a mucilaginous sheath
The carbohydrate stored is glycogen
No flagella, but some exhibit gliding
movements
Some fix nitrogen in specialized cells
called heterocysts

In some genera the mucilaginous

sheath forms a gelatinous matrix
Gelatinous
matrix
Individual
cells

Gloeocapsa

FilamentsofNostoc
communeforming
agelatinousball

Symbiotic Associations of
Cyanobacteria
Anabaena azollae in leaves of the water
fern Azolla
Nostoc in apogeotropic roots of Zamia
Nostoc and other genera in some
lichens
Nostoc in leaves of some tropical
angiosperms

Symbiotic Associations of
Cyanobacteria

Richelia in some pennate diatoms

Nostoc in Anthoceros (Hornworts)
Gloeocapsa in polar bear hairs
Cyanelles in protozoans
(Glaucophytes) - cyanobacteria
enclosed in vacuoles, and acting like
chloroplasts

Apogeotropic roots and Anaboena

nodules on Zamia pumila

Aapogeotropicroot
Hhypocotyl
Pprimaryroot

Nnitrogenfixing
nodule

Cyanelles (endosymbiotic cyanobacteria)

in the glaucophyte Glaucocystis

Glucoseistransferreddirectlytothehost

Heterocysts

InRivularia, InAnaboena,the
theheterocysts heterocystsare
intercalary
arebasal

Oscillatorialacks
heterocysts

Akinetes
Heterocyst
Akinete

Cylindrospermum

Anabaena

CellandFilamentDivision
inCyanophyta

CellDivisionin
Anabaena
Hormogonium
FormationinOscillatoria

FalseBranchinginCyanophyta

InTolypothrix,false
branchingoccurs
adjacenttothe
heterocyst

Scytonema

GeologicalActivitiesof
Cyanobacteria

Travertine(calciumcarbonate)
precipitatedbycyanobacteriain
YellowstoneNationalParkhot Stromatolitesformingon
tidalflatsinWestern
springs(fromMoore)
Australia(fromRaven)

CyanobacteriainAgriculture

TheWaterfernAzolla
Photo
synthetic
tissue

RicePaddy

Section
through
Azolla
leaf

Cavity

Anaboena
Secretory
hair

CyanobacteriaasFood
Flamingoesfeedingon
Spirulinainalkaline
LakeNakuru,Kenya

 Spirulina contains 70% its dry weight as

protein
Spirulina grows well in saline and alkaline
ponds in arid environments
Native peoples near Lake Chad (Africa) and
Lake Texcoco (Mexico) have traditionally
used Spirulina as food
Spirulina is grown commercially in California,
Israel, Japan, Thailand & Mexico

Protists:
The Simplest
Eukaryotes

The Many Protist Lineages

Protists are eukaryotic organisms that
are not fungi, plants, or animals
Protists include many lineages of
mostly single-celled eukaryotes, some
only distantly related to one another
No single trait is unique to protists

Protist Organization and

Nutrition
Most protists are single-celled, but some are
colonial or multicelled
Protists can be autotrophs or heterotrophs,
and a few can switch between modes
Some single-celled protists can develop into
a nonmotile, dormant cyst during hard times

General characteristics of Protista

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Eukaryotic
Most are unicellular
Most are aquatic
Varied mode of nutrition
Reproduce sexually and asexually
Nuclei divide by mitosis and meiosis
Varied means of locomotion

 Protists live wherever there is water. So

they have contractile vacuoles.
Kingdom Protista is probably the most
diverse group of living things.
They can be plant-like, animal-like, or
fungus-like.
Protists range in size from microscopic
algae to giant seaweeds.

U n ic e llu la r
E u k a ry o te s

protista
A n im a l lik e

P la n t lik e

F u n g i lik e

b y lo c o m o t io n

b y p ig m e n t
a n d c e ll w a ll

b y life s t y le
a n d c e ll t y p e

P s e u d o p o d ia
am oeb a

U n ic e llu la r
fla g e lla t e s

W a te r M o ld
w / c e llu lo s e

F la g e lla
g ia r d ia

G o ld e n A lg a e
d ia t o m s

W a te r M o ld
w / c h it in

N o m o t io n
p la s m o d iu m

F ir e A lg a e
d in o fla g e lla t e s

T ru e
S lim e M o ld

C ilia
p a r a m e c iu m

B r o w n A lg a e
k e lp

C e llu la r
S lim e M o ld

R e d A lg a e
seaw eed
G r e e n A lg a e

Plant-like are called algae.

They are categorized as
unicellular or multicellular.

The Algae

Division CHLOROPHYTA (Green Algae)

Division PHAEOPHYTA (Brown Algae)
Division RHODOPHYTA (Red Algae)
Division CHRYSOPHYTA (Golden
Algae, Diatoms, Yellow-green Algae)
Division PYRRHOPHYTA
(Dinoflagellates)
Division EUGLENOPHYTA (Euglenoids)

Characteristics of Algae:

Plant-like members of the kingdom Protista

Eukaryotes
Most unicellular, but some multicellular
Autotrophic contain chlorophyll & make
food by photosynthesis
Plankton = communities of organisms,
mostly microscopic, that drift passively or
swim weakly near the surface of oceans,
ponds, and lakes

 Produce oxygen that is returned to the

atmosphere
Range in size from microscopic to seaweeds
hundreds of feet in length
Do not have true roots, stems, nor leaves
Form gametes (eggs & sperm) in singlecelled gametangia (chambers) instead of
multicellular gametangia like true plants

 Found in freshwater, marine, and moist

soil habitats
Most have flagella at some time in life
cycle
Algae cells contain organelles called
pyrenoids organelles that make & store
starch

Distinguishing Features of Algae

Divisions

Habitat
Photosynthetic Pigments
Cell-wall Components
Carbohydrate Stored
Number and types of flagella

Types of Life Cycles

a. Zygotic Meiosis
(e.g. Chlamydomonas
b. Gametic Meiosis
(e.g. Brown Alga
Fucus)
c. Sporic Meiosis or
Alternation of
Generations (e.g. true
plants & many algae)

Evolutionary origins of plants: algae

Algae= a number of groups of
organisms that are plant-like in that
they contain chloroplasts and carry out
photosynthesis but are outside the
lineage of plants.

Habitat
Algae have a widespread occurrence
Aquatic: marine, freshwater
Terrestrial: deserts, soils, trees, rocks, etc
Some are symbiotic
e.g. lichen is a symbiotic alliance between a
fungus and an alga.
e.g. Green Algae (zooxanthellae) live within
reef building corals.

Growth forms of algae

Algae take on a variety of forms both
microscopic and macroscopic
Unicellular
Colonies
Filaments
Multicellular thallus

Ecological Importance of algae

Are very important primary producers
especially in marine ecosystems.
Play major roles in global cycling of C,
N, and O2.
Their photosynthetic activity forms the
basis of complex communities.

Unicellular Algae
Diatoms
These are unicellular algae that look like
and have the variety of snowflakes.
They have glass-like cell walls containing
silica.
The walls have two parts that fit together
like pill boxes.
Pores in the cell walls allow materials to
pass into and out of the diatom.

Diatoms
They have thousands of different
shapes and patterns.
They are among the most abundant
organisms in the ocean.
They have a high oil content.
When they die their shells accumulate
at the bottom of the ocean as
diatomaceous earth.

Unicellular Algae: Euglenoids

They resemble both algae and
protozoans.
They lack rigid cell walls.
They move about by using a flagella.
They do have chloroplasts and carry
out photosynthesis.

 Multicellular algae were once considered

plants because they contained chloroplasts.
They are now considered protists because
few of them have true tissues.
They also reproduce more like protists.
classify them according to the color of their
pigments.

Kingdom Protista
This kingdom is
very diverse in
habitat and life
form. The
kingdom includes
unicellular
organisms, large
multicellular algae
and plasmodial
slime molds.

Habitat & Communities

Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton microscopic plants and
some types of bacteria which obtain their
energy via photosynthesis.
Important to the ecosystem because
Part of the primary producing community
Assist in recycling elements such as carbon
and sulfur which are required elsewhere in the
community.

 Basis for aquatic food chain: major

primary producers
Huge impact on global primary
production
More abundant in well-lighted areas
with higher temperatures
Relatively unspecialized physiology,
but are evolved to maintain buoyancy
May be unicellular or multicellular

Phytoplankton
Asexual reproduction keep numbers high
Cyanobacteria can double several times/day
Diatoms are slower, but can double every 1-2
weeks

Phytoplankton
Important groups:
cyanobacteria
dinoflagellates
euglenoids
green algae
diatoms

Characteristics of Algae
Algae must live in or near water
Most algae lack an internal system of
tubes to move water and materials from
one part of the plant to another
Can be unicellular or multicellular
Most are multicellular

 Some scientists put algae in the

Protista kingdom because some are
unicellular
Most unicellular algae are microscopic,
resembling plant-like protist
They all have cells walls

 All algae contain chlorophyll a

They have complicated reproductive
cycles, stages of sexual reproduction
alternate with stages of asexual
reproduction Single-celled protists:

 Adaptations of Algae to life under water

Algae has a leaf-like structure
(only two cells thick) that can exchange
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients
directly with the water around them

 Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

Lack of light under water
The energy that chlorophyll traps from
the sunlight is absorbed into the water

 Algae adapted to life with little light,

and eventually evolved into having
different types of chlorophyll:
Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Chlorophyll
c Chlorophyll d

 These different types of chlorophyll

absorb different wavelengths of light
Chlorophyll a can be combined with b,
c, or d
Algae also contains different
wavelengths of light

 The light absorbing compounds are

called accessory pigments. They pass
the energy that they absorb onto the
algae's photosynthetic machinery. The
accessory pigments enable algae to
live in deep water.

 The reflection of wavelengths gives

algae a range of colors. Groups of
algae:
Green algae
Contains chlorophyll a and b
Store food in the form of starch

Brown algae

 Contains chlorophyll a and c, and an

accessory pigment called fucoxanthi
Store food in the form of special starches
and oils

 red algae:
contain chlorophyll a, some also contain
chlorophyll d, and
they all contain an accessory pigment
called phycobilins
phycobilins absorb the energy of blue light,
which makes it available for photosynthesis

 this enables red algae to live deeper in the

ocean red algae can be different colors:
they can be pink, red, purple, or even black

stores food in the form of a special kind of

starch.

Characteristics
Range in size from microscopic to single
celled organisms to large seaweed
Autotrophic
Form the reproductive structures
gametangia or gamete chambers
Aquatic and have flagella at some point in
life
Often contain pyrenoids, organelles that
synthesis and store starch

Reproduction in Algae
The life cycles of most algae include
both a diploid and a haploid generation
Alternation of generations- when the
production of diploid and haploid cells
-switch back and forth.

 Zoospores- haploid cell involved in

asexual reproduction in algae
They can reproduce either asexually or
sexually by binary fission

Structure of Algal Cells:

The body of algae is called the thallus
Algae may be unicellular, colonial,
filamentous, or multicellular
Unicellular algae are single-celled & make up
phytoplankton (a population of
photosynthetic organisms that begins many
aquatic food chains)
Phytoplankton make much world's
carbohydrates & are the major producers of
oxygen

STRUCTURE
Thallus (haploid)
Four types of algae
Unicellular
Colonial
Filamentous
multicellular

IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF ALGAE

 There are different groups of algae:

Chlorophyta- the green algae
Chlamydomonas- a single- celled green
algae colonial green algae: spirogyra and
oedogonium- threadlike green
algae ulva-a multicellular green

Phaeophyta- the brown algae

Rhodophyta- the red algae

Structure of Algal Cells:

Colonial algae consist of groups of
cells working together
Some colonial algal cells may
specialize for movement, feeding, or
reproduction showing for division of
labor

Colonial algae

Structure of Algal Cells:

Filamentous algae have slender, rodshaped thallus arranged in rows joined
end-to-end
Holdfasts are specialized structures in
some filamentous algae that attaches
the algae so it can grow toward
sunlight at the surface

Filamentous algae
Enteromorpha

Structure of Algal Cells:

Multicellular algae often have a large,
complex leaf-like thallus & may have
stem-like sections and air bladders
Macrocystis is among the largest
multicellular algae

Structure of algae vs. seagrass

Air Bladders

Multicellular algae
Macrocystis

 Act as producers making food & oxygen

Many species of algae reproduce sexually
and asexually
Sexual reproduction in algae is often
triggered by environmental stress

Algae is used for many purposes

Fertilizer
Food for humans and animals
Hawaiiian cultural practices
Extracted products:
potash
algin
carrageenan
agar

Some algae provide food for most of

the life in the ocean.
they produce much of the earth's free
oxygen through photosynthesis.
Algae can be used in many different
ways, in has high vitamin C and iron, it
is used to thicken frozen dairy
desserts.

It can be used to treat stomach ulcers,

lung ailments, high blood pressure,
arthritis, and other health problems.
It is added in many foods such as
pickle relishes, salad dressings, chip
dips" pancake syrups, eggnog, also in
toothpastes, and hand lotions.

Most common algae used for food

worldwide

Porphyra (nori)
Gracilaria (ogo)
Rhodymenia (dulse)
Chondrus crispus (Irish moss)

Porphyra (nori)

Nori: better than potato chips!

Also high in.

Iodine
Vitamin B12
Riboflavin
Calcium
Fiber

Gracilaria (ogo)

Carrageenan
Kappaphycus/Eucheuma
(Rhodophyta)

Agar
Extracted from Rhodophyta

Algin/Alginate & Potash

Extracted from Phaeophyta

REPRODUCTION
MOST REPRODUCE BOTH SEXUALLY AND
ASEXUALLY
Most sexual reproduction is triggered by
environmental stress
Asexual Reproduction
Mitosis

Sexual Reproduction

Meiosis
Zoospores
Plus and minus gametes
Zygospore

Reproduction in Multicellular Algae

Oedogonium reproduction
Antheridium-release flagellated
sperm that swim to the
oogonium
Oogonium-houses the zygote
which is a diploid spore
The spore undergoes meiosis and
produces 4 haploid zoospores. One
of the four cells becomes a rootlike
holdfast the others divide and
become a new filament.

Spirogyra reproduce sexually by

conjugation

Ulva Reproduces by Alternation

of Generations
Two distinct multicellular phases- one
is haploid and the other is diploid
Gametophyte is haploid
Sporophyte is diploid

Asexual Phase
Algae absorbs its flagellum
Haploid algal cell then divides
mitotically from 2 to 3 times
From 4 - 8 haploid flagellated cells
called zoospores develop in this parent
cell
Zoospores break out of the parent cell
& eventually grow to full size

Sexual Phase
Haploid cells dividing mitotically to produce
either plus or minus gametes
A plus gamete and a minus gamete come
into contact with one another, shed their cell
walls, and fuse to form a diploid zygote
This resting stage of a zygote is called a
zygospore & an withstand bad environmental
conditions
When conditions are bad, the thick wall
opens and the living zoospore emerges

Reproduction in Multicellular Algae:

Oedogonium is a multicellular,
filamentous green algae with
specialized cells called gametangia that
form gametes
The male gametangia or antheridium
makes sperm, & the female gametangia
or oogonium makes eggs
Sperm are released into the water &
swim to the egg to fertilize them

 The fertilized egg or zygote is released from

the oogonium & forms thick-walled
zoospores
Zoospores undergo meiosis so one cell
attaches to the bottom & develops a holdfast
while the other zoospores divide & form a
filament

Spirogyra, another filamentous green

algae, reproduces by conjugation

 Two filaments align side by side, their adjacent

cell walls dissolve, & a conjugation tube forms
between them
Fertilization occurs when a + gamete cell moves
through the tube & fuses to the - gamete cell
Zygote forms a thick walled spore (sporangium)
that breaks away from the parent & forms a new
filament
Conjugation Tube between Spirogyra

Reproduction in
Chlamydomona
s

Chlorophyta (green Algae): 7000

species
May be unicellular, multicellular, or colonial
Include Spirogyra, Ulva, & Chlamydomonas
Contain chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b and
carotenoids (orange & yellow pigments) as
accessory pigments
Store food as starch

 Cell walls mainly cellulose, but some marine

forms add CaCO3
Habitat may be freshwater, moist surfaces, or
marine environments
Some have whip-like flagella for movement
May live symbiotically as lichens
Thought to have given rise to terrestrial
plants

 This group most closely resembles

plants because of the cell wall and the
structure of their chloroplasts.
Some are unicellular like
Chlamydomans, which grows
abundantly in ponds and moist soils.

 Some are multicellular like Ulva, which

are made of flat, leaf-like sheets.
Ulva is found in the ocean.
Some are colonies like Volvox, which
might include a thousand cells.

 Some multicellular algae like Spirogyra,

grow as filaments with cells linked end
to end.
Commonly found in ponds.

 Most green algae live in fresh water or

in moist soil.
Many green algae live in symbiotic
relationships with other organisms.
For example, a lichen, which is a green
algae and a fungus.

Chlorella
cellwall

vacuole

cellmembrane
cytosol

mitochondria

chloroplast
starch

nucleus

Chlamydomonascontractile

flagella

vacuole

http://www.unap.cl/~cbrieba/common/chlamydomonas.jpg

eyespot
cellulosicwall
cellmembrane

nucleus
mitochondria

cytosol
http://universereview.ca/I1023chlamydomonas.jpg

chloroplast

starch
pyrenoid

Chlamydomonascellsofopposite
matingtypejoininsyngamytoform
azygotewhichdevelopsathickwall
asahypnospore.
Uponreturntobetterconditions,the
zygoteundergoesmeiosisandreleases
flagellatedcellsofbothmatingtypes.

http://www.isis.de/members/~ralfwagner/Bilder/Chlamydomonas_spec_Zygote.jpg

mitosis

gametes

gametangia

differentiation

Gametophyte
differentiation
mitosis
germination

http://www.unap.cl/~cbrieba/co
mmon/chlamydomonas.jpg

zygote

1N 2N

germination
mitosis
differentiation

Sporophyte
differentiation

sporangium
spores

http://www.isis.de/members/~ralfwagne
r/Bilder/Chlamydomonas_spec_Zygote.j
pg

SYNGAMY

definitelyzygotic
(haplontic)

mitosis

sporocyte

MEIOSIS

http://www.isis.de/members/~ralfw
agner/Bilder/Chlamydomonas_spec
_Zygote.jpg

http://www.biology.wustl.edu/
faculty/images/goodenoughca
ption.jpg

isitgametic?
(diplontic)

LifeCycleof
Chlamydomonas

Cosmariumzygotes

http://www.microscopyuk.org.uk/mag/imgjan01/Zygote3.jpg

http://www.microscopy
uk.org.uk/mag/imgjan01/Z
ygote3.jpg

http://www.isis.de/members/~ralfwagner/Bil
der/Cosmarium_tetraophthalmus.jpg

LifeCycleof
Cosmarium
SYNGAMY

mitosis

gametes

zygote

gametangia

isitgametic?
(diplontic)

differentiation

Gametophyte
differentiation
mitosis
germination

1N 2N

germination
mitosis
differentiation

Sporophyte
differentiation

sporangium
spores

mitosis

sporocyte

definitelyzygotic
(haplontic)
http://www.microscopy
uk.org.uk/mag/imgjan01/Z
ygote3.jpg

http://www.isis.de/members/~r
alfwagner/Bilder/Cosmarium_t
etraophthalmus.jpg

MEIOSIS

Ulvalactucathallus

http://bio59000.free.fr/Photosbio59000/Biovegetale/Algues/Ulva%20lactuca.gif

SomespeciesofUlva
areanisogamous.

isogametes syngamy

zygote
settleson
substrate

1N 2N

Gametophytes
+

Sporophyte

settleon
substrate

+
meiosis
Sincethey

aremotile,
Themeiosporesmadeby
theyarealso thesporophyteareoftwo
called
matingtypes.
zoospores.

holdfast

sporocyte
Thelifecycleis:

sporic:diplohaplontic
gametic:diplontic
zygotic:haplontic

Ulva life cycle

There are three isomorphic thalli

Codium

http://massbay.mit.edu/exoticspecies/exoticmaps/images/codium_big.jpg

Thelifecycleis:
sporic:diplohaplontic
gametic:diplontic
zygotic:haplontic

CodiumLifeCycle
syngamy
zygote

1N 2N

Sporophytes

anisogametes

2sexes

holdfast

sporangium
sporocytes

zoospores

meiosis

Oedogoniumthallus

http://www.plingfactory.de/Science/GruKlaOeko/Teichleben/Algen/Oedogonium%20sp..jpg

Oedogonium
Herethefilamentsareoutoffocus.
Theasexualzoosporeisinfocus.

http://www.botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/130/Chlorophyta/Oedogonium_Images/Zoospore_MC.low.jpg

Oogonium

http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/__data/page/1810/Oedogonium.gif

Oedogonium
Thisisthezoospore,ormaybeitis
thesperm.Bothhavethesame
look!
http://www.biologie.unihamburg.de/bonline/fo44/18.jpg

Whenboth
oogoniumand
antheridium
appearonthe
samefilamentthe
algais
homothallic.
http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/g/chl_oedogonium.jpg

OedogoniumLifeCycle
Sinceantheridia
sperm
andoogoniaareon
thesame
filaments,this
speciesis
chemotaxis
homothallic.
Vegetative
zoosporescan
clonethe
gametophyte
Zoosporessettledown
withaholdfastand
growintoafilament.

syngamy
empty
antheridia

egg

zygote

(hypnospore)

1N 2N

(inoogonium)

(inoogonium)

Thezygote
divides
meioticallyto
release4
zoospores.
meiosis Thislifecycleis
haplontic(zygotic).

Unicellular Chlorophyta Exs:

Chlamydomonas sp.
Freshwater
Cell wall
Chloroplast -with a pyrenoid
(starch)

Stigma eye spot

2 Flagella

Unicellular Chlorophyta Exs:

Cosmarium sp.
Freshwater

Unicellular Chlorophyta Exs:

Closterium sp.
Freshwater

Filamentous Chlorophyta Exs:

Spirogyra sp.
end-to-end chains that form after cell
division.
Freshwater
Spiralled chloroplast

Filamentous Chlorophyta Exs:

Cladophora sp.
Branched filament

Multicellular Chlorophyta Exs:

Ulva sp.
Common name: sea lettuce
Marine
2 cells thick -flat

Multicellular Chlorophyta Exs:

Chara sp.
Freshwater
Thought to be the predecessor to plants!
WHY? same type of chlorophyll

Colonial Chlorophyta Exs:

Volvox sp.
Hollow sphere of cells
Form Daughter colonies during asexual repro.

Volvox
Volvox is a spherical,
freshwater
colony of Chlorophyta
that is
composed of flagellate
cells.
The colonies are very
large and
can be seen with the
naked eye
in most
circumstances.

Volvox-- overview
Each mature Volvox
colony is composed of
numerous flagellate cells
similar to
Chlamydomonas, on the
order of 10003000 in
total, and embedded in the
surface of a hollow sphere
or coenobium made of a
gelatinous glycoprotein.

More Volvox
The colony is enabled
to swim towards light
as a result of the
eyespots on the cells.
Generally located at
the anterior of the cell,
these eyespots allow
for coordinated
movement of the
colony (connected
together by thin strands
of cytoplasm).

Reproduction
The colony can be either asexual or sexual
with the asexual colonies having both
somatic cells and reproducing cells called
gonidia.
Gonidia cells are located near the posterior
and produce new colonies through rapid
reproduction.
If sexual reproduction takes place, two
types of gametes are produced. Male
colonies will release sperm while female
colonies will grow into oogametes.

Biotic Community Member

Volvox is a freshwater
algae and is found in ponds
and ditches, even in
shallow puddles.
It is a vital food source for
small animals and serves
as a good indicator of the
health of a pond or lake, as
algae can only exist in
oxygen-rich environments.

Colonial Chlorophyta Exs:

Other examples.

 Chlorophyta- the green algae

found mainly in moist areas on land and in
fresh water, some live in the ocean
many forms of algae have evolved from
green algae and adapted into different
environments
green algae may live as single cells

 a colony is a group of cells that are joined

together and show few specialized
structures or structures that perform a
particular function multicellualr green
algae have well developed specialized
structures

 all species of green algae have sexual and

asexual reproductive cycles they have
cellulose in their cells walls
one stage in the cycle of mosses
resembles a tangled mass of green algae

 scientists believe that the ancestors of

modem land plants looked just like certain
species of green algae
algae rarely form fossils, so there are no
fossils that can prove algae and mosses
maybe related.

 Chlamydomonas- a single-celled green

algae grows in ponds, ditches, and wet
soil
it has an eyespot, which can't see but can
determine whether or not the organism -is
in the light or dark. It also has a cupshaped chloroplast

 At the base of the chloroplast is a small

phrenoid, which is an organelle that that
synthesizes and stores starch. They don't
have vacuoles; instead they have two
small contractile vacuoles. It has a cell
wall but it doesn't contain cellulose.

 it has the characteristics of algae in the

protist kingdom and land plants. This is
why botanists believe chlamydomonas is
one step in the evolution of multicellular
plants and unicellular protists.

 Colonial green algae

Gonium and Volvox are two examples of
green algae.
They can form large colonies filled with
many cells.
These organisms function interestingly:

VOLVOX

 The cells in a Volvox colony connect to

another strand of cytoplasm, enabling the
cells in the colony to communicate. In
order for the colony to swim they need
communication.

 When the cells on one side of the colony

"pull" with their flagella, the cells on the
other side of the colony "push". Although
most cells in a Volvox colony are identical
few cells can reproduce. The cells that can
reproduce produce gametes.

 Filaments- threadlike colonies formed

by green algae
These filaments usually live in freshwater.
Two examples of these are:
Spirogyra and Oedogonium. Filamentous algae
can reproduce asexually. Many can also
reproduce sexually by forming two different
gametes

holdfast cell- a specialized cell that attaches

an algal filament to the bottom of a lake or a
pond

Ulva- a multicellualr green algae

Ulva- or " sea lettuce" is a bright- green
multicellular marine alga that is
commonly found along rocky
seacoasts; These are strong enough to
survive crashing waves by attaching its
base to the rocks.

Chlamydomonas
unicellular; motile, with two anterior
flagella that pull the organism through
the water
under lower light intensity a cup
shaped chloroplast, pigmented eyespot
and clear nucleus may be observed

Gonium and Volvox

are motile, colonial green algae.
Gonium colonies are flattened and are held
together by gelatinous material
Volvox colonies are large spheres; usually
within the sphere are several conspicuous
daughter colonies

 Hydrodictyon
non-motile; colonial
multinucleate cells, separated by cross walls

Oedogonium
non-motile
filamentous (thread-like); unbranched filaments

Ulva
multicellular; relatively large
mature body is a flattened tissue-like sheet
isomorphic alternation of generations

Green Algae

 Notes:
Cell walls of cellulose
and nuclear membrane
present
May possess 2 or 4
flagella

Ulva
The leaflike algae Ulva has a sexual
reproductive cycle characterized by a pattern
called alternation of generations
Alternation of generations has two distinct
multicellular phases- a haploid, gameteproducing phase called a gametophyte and a
diploid, spore-producing phase called a
sporophyte
Alternation of Generation also occurs in
more complex land plants, but the
gametophyte & sporophyte do not resemble
each other

More Green Algae

A freshwater type

Volvox
A colonial type of
green algae it is
made of many
individual cells.

This tropical green algae used in

aquariums was accidentally released
into the Mediterranean Sea where it
covered native plant species!!

Spirogyra

In Spirogyra the
chloroplast runs
through the cell like a
coiled spring or helix.

Conjugation in Spirogyra

A type of sexual reproduction which forms zygotes.

Conjugation in Spirogyra
Spirogyra forms conjugation
tubes. The contents of one cell
passes through the tube and
fuses with a cell from the other
filament.
Fertilization occurs and a
zygote is formed. This
develops into a thick walled
resistant zygospore, similar to
breadmold! These zygospores
can withstand harsh
conditions. They can survive
the cold winter or when a
pond dries up.

A colour enhanced
photomicrograph of
conjugation in Spirogyra.
Note how the contents of one
cell enter the other through a
conjugation tube.

It may take a long time

before new filaments
start to grow. Here the
start of the development
into new filaments is
visible as the spiral
chloroplasts are
beginning to show.

When conditions are favourable

zygospores grow into pond scum once
again!!

It is also the name of

a Jazz-Rock group !

Not all green algae are green!!!

Single cell green algae are found just about anywhere

there is water. They coat surfaces, form bubbly scums on
ponds, and drift about in the sunny upper water of lakes
and oceans. They even live on snow banksa condition
called watermelon snow. In this case the green cells are
protected from harmful ultra violet radiation by a parasol
of red pigment ! It tastes like watermelon but if you eat

Walking on pink snow often

results in red soles as the red
carotenoid algal pigment
rubs off on your shoes. Wellworn shoes such as these are
not very safe for walking on
a steep snow bank.
During late spring and summer, alpine snowbanks are often colored
beautiful shades of red by a myriad of algal cells. The
concentrations or "blooms" may extend to a depth of 25
centimeters (10 inches). Each spherical cell is approximately 30
micrometers in diameter, about four times the diameter of a human
red blood cell. It has been estimated that one teaspoon of melted
snow may contain more than a million cells of snow algae.
Compacting the snow increases the density of the red cells and
heightens the color.

Phaeophyta (brown algae): 1500

species
Contain chlorophyll a & chlorophyll c
and fucoxanthin (brown pigment) as
accessory pigments
Most are multicellular growing in cooler
marine habitats
Include kelps & seaweeds
Largest protists

 Specialized rootlike holdfasts anchor thallus

to rocks
Specialized air bladders keep leaflike blades
afloat near surface to get light for
photosynthesis
Stemlike structures are called the stipe and
support the blades
Store food as a carbohydrate called laminarin
Include Laminaria & Fucus

 They are multicellular.

They live in cool saltwater habitats.
This group includes the largest
organism in the Protista Kingdom.
Giant Kelp

 Giant kelp can grow to 100

meters and live in deep
water beyond the intertidal
zone.
They have specialized
structures called air
bladders to keep the kelp
afloat near the surface to
absorb sunlight.

 Some multicellular algae have complex

life cycles that alternate between a
spore producing stage (called a
sporophyte generation) and a gamete
producing stage (called a gametophyte
generation).
This type of life cycle is called
alternation of generations.

 Phaeophyta- the brown algae

Found in shallow coastal waters of
temperate or arctic areas.
Sea weeds are a type of brown algae.
They have a very simple structure.
Some algae can grow to be 60 meters
long.

 Another common brown algae is

Fucus, otherwise known as rockweed,
and lives along rocky coasts.

4 parts to Thallus (body):

 Macrocystis sp.
Height >300 ft.
Algin

 Sargassum sp.
Deepest occurring brown algae

 1500 species of Brown algae

Mostly marine and include seaweed and
kelp
All are multicellular and large (often
reaching lengths of 147 feet)
Individual alga may grow to a length of
100m with a holdfast, stipe and blade
Used in cosmetics and most ice creams

Phylum Phaeophyta
III. Brown algae

* Dusky plants: yellowishbrown color

* Color is due to pigment:

Fucoxanthin

* Largest variety of algae:

e.g. Giant Kelp or Bull Kelp and
Fucus (rock weed)

* Important structures:
holdfast, stipe, bladder, blades.
These are plantlike features!

Fucus or Rock weed is found on

the shores around Victoria

Phylum Phaeophyta:
Brown Algae : 99% of the brown algae
species are found in the marine environment.
Characteristics exhibit a wide range of
reproductive strategies, from simple, asexual
cell division to complex forms of sexual
reproduction known as "Alteration of
generations.
The thallus (or body) of the brown kelp algae,
is made of:

 Holdfast - used to attach to rock or bottom to anchor

the algae

Stipe - flexible and used for flotation similar to the

stem of a land plant. It is hollow in the giant kelp or
bull kelp.
Air bladder or pneumatocyst contains gases to help
blades float at surface
Blade - leaf like structure that floats on surface to
collect sunlight for photosynthesis.

The bladder contains a

mix of gases, up to 10% of
which can be carbon
monoxide.

and kelp beds on the surface of the sea

And on our rocky shores

Algin is found in the cell wall of

kelp
along with cellulose. Kelp is harvested for
this substance which acts as an emulsifier
and thickening agent used in many products.
Emulsifiers allow for a stable and
homogenous mixture of two liquids, which
do not normally mix. .

 About half of the algin produced is used for

making ice cream and other dairy products. The
rest is used in other products, including shaving
cream, rubber, an paint.
Algin is used as a stabiliser in ice-cream and
salad dressings. In fruit pie fillings, the algin
stops the fruit pulp leaking into the pastry.
It is also used as a foam stabiliser in beer, as
well as in bakery products and pet food.

Agricultural and garden uses

For people who live near the
coast, seaweed is an important
natural resource that is readily
available and provides food for
humans, livestock and the land.
It has an abundance of trace
elements, minerals and growth
promoting agents and decayed
seaweed helps retain moisture,
making seaweed attractive for use
on light or sandy soils.

There is a growing awareness of the

benefits associated with the use of
seaweed in soil conditioning, with golf
courses and sports grounds the major
uses in this sector.

 The algin present in seaweed acts as a

moisture retainer, particularly in loose
sandy soils. This coupled with the slow
release of trace elements make seaweed
an attractive alternative to artificial
fertilizers.

Dentists use algin to make dental

impressions of teeth.

An alginate impression of
the upper arch

An alginate impression of
the lower arch

Another use of Algin and

Diatoms!
A great peel off mask for
tightening skin and
absorbing excess oil.
Active ingredients:
seaweed, calcium salt,
diatomaceous earth.
After activation with
water and application,
the mask simply peels
off the skin.

Some Medical uses of Algin

Algin is used in dressings for
the treatment of exudative
wounds.
This dressing forms a gel layer
which protects the wound and
maintains an ideal moist
environment for healing.
Sailors have been treating
their wounds with seaweed for
hundreds of years.

 Sodium alginate, the sodium salt of algin, is

present in some antacid products and is
effective for the treatment of gastroesophageal
reflux disease or GERD.

 Sodium alginate reacts with gastric acid to form

a gel called the alginate raft. The alginate raft
floats on top of the gastric (stomach) contents
and acts as a barrier to acid and food reflux
preventing entrance back into the esophagus.

 Sodium alginate binds tightly to radioactive such

substances as strontium, calcium, barium, cadmium
and radium.

Cows have been fed sodium alginate, which binds to

radioactive strontium 90, causing it to pass out of
the body without any of it getting absorbed. Animals
can consume radioactive materials if they have
been dispersed into the environment.

Rhodophyta (red algae): 4000

species
Multicellular algae that mainly grow
deep in warm marine waters
Some freshwater species exist
Highly branched thallus
Contain chlorophyll a & phycobilins
(red pigments) to trap sunlight for
photosynthesis

 Store food as starch

Cell walls contain cellulose and agar (used
as a base in culture dishes to grow
microbes)
Some species contain carageenan in their
cell walls used for gelatin capsules & in
some cheeses

 .Rhodophyta- the red algae

Found in waters from the far north to the
tropics. They can grow anywhere from the
ocean's surface to depths of up to 170
meters.

 They contain a special accessory pigment

that allows them to use the smallest
amount of light that does reach them.
Most species of red algae are multicellular,
and all have a complicated life cycle.

 They grow in warm, saltwater environments.

Some live near the surface and some live as
deep as 260 meters.
At this depth, few wavelengths of light are
available for photosynthesis.

 Red algae contains an accessory

pigment that enables them to use the
available light.
Their pigments can also appear green,
orange or almost black.

 Most are marine

Smaller than brown algae and are often
found at a depth of 200 meters.
Contain chlorophyll a and C as well as
phycobilins which are important in absorbing
light that can penetrate deep into the water
Have cells coated in carageenan which is
used in cosmetics, gelatin capsules and
some cheeses

 Phylum Rhodophyta
Habitat: primarily marine
but some fw
Notes:
Uses Chlor A/D,
carotenoids and
biliproteins
No flagellated life stage
Able to photosynthesize at
very low light levels and
wide range of the spectrum

Phylum Rhodophyta
pigments called Phycobilins: reddish
colour, but not all are red
Some live and photosynthesize at
extreme depths (up to120
metres!)
due to these red pigments which
absorb blue light
some involved in forming coral reefs
produce carageenan and agar

Red algae and green algae are the

closest relatives of land plants
Red algae
Contribute to coral reefs

Some types of red algae aid in the formation of coral

reefs
Such as this coralline algae.

Red Algae is a source of

Carrageenan and Agar
An Overview of Current
Carrageenan Applications
FOOD APPLICATIONs
Beer/Wine/ Vinegar -accelerates
and improves clarity. Chocolate
Milk Drink -stabilizes and
improves viscosity. Ice cream
-prevents ice crystals formation.
-enhances excellent mouthfeel.
Flans/Dessert Gel -enhances
flavor release and excellent
mouthfeel Sauces and Dressings
-thickens and improves viscosity.

 PROCESSED MEAT Beef Patty -substitutes

fat, retains moisture and increase yield.
Luncheon Meat -prevents fat separation
serves as a meat extender. Poultry and Ham
-controls dehydration of frozen poultry,
enhances juiciness and increase yield.
NON-FOOD APPLICATION Petfood Canned
meat and fish -gelling and stabilizing agent.
Moist, solid petfood -binder. Toothpaste
-stabilizer. Air freshener -gelling agent.

 The greatest use of agar is in association with food

preparation and in the pharmaceutical industry (as a
laxative, or as an inert carrier for drug products
where slow release of the drug is required).
Agar is used in bacteriology and mycology as a
stiffening agent in growth media.

 Agar is used as a stabilizer for

emulsions, and as a constituent of
cosmetic skin preparations, ointments,
and lotions. It is used in photographic
film, shoe polish, dental impression
molds, shaving soaps, hand lotions,
and in the tanning industry.

 In food, agar is used as a substitute for

gelatin, as an antidrying agent in
breads and pastry, and also for gelling
and thickening purposes. It is used in
the manufacture of processed cheese,
mayonnaise, puddings, creams, and
jellies and in the manufacture of frozen
dairy products

 Porphyra sp.
Common name: Nori
Used as the wrappings
around sushi

Dinoflagellata or Pyrrophyta
(dinoflagellates): 1100 species
Major producers in marine habitats
Small, unicellular organisms making up
plankton
Many are photosynthetic, but some are
colorless heterotrophs
Photosynthetic dinoflagellates are
yellow to brown in color due to
chlorophyll a & c and carotenoids

Bacillariophyta (diatoms): 11,500

species
Abundant in marine & freshwater habitats
Called phytoplankton & start many aquatic
food chains
Contain chlorophyll a & c, carotenoids
(orange pigments), & xanthophyll (yellow
pigments)
Store food as starch & contain mainly
cellulose in their cell walls
Lack cilia & flagella

Phylum: Bacillariophyta
THE DIATOMS
Most numerous unicellular algae in
marine water
Cell wall =silica
Used economically as filtering agents,
gentle abrasives (wax)

LM
400

Photosynthetic, unicellular
diatoms

Phylum: Bacillariophyta
Structure:
2 parts:
Epivalve: top
Hypovalve: bottom

Whole body: frustule

2 kinds: based on shape

1. Centric

2. Pennate

Freshwater algae
Chrysophyta (golden algae)
Euglenophyta

 There are numerous types of marine

algae found throughout our back bay
areas, this has just been a sample of
what you will find.

Euglenoids
Phylum Euglenophyta
Habitat: freshwater
Notes:
Mostly unicellular with
1-3 flagella
Nuclear membrane but
no cell walls

Phylum: Euglenophyta

Freshwater
Unicellular
Autotrophic chloroplasts
Movement flagella(um)

Phylum Euglenophyta

1000 species of
Euglenoids
Have both plantlike
and animal-like
characteristics
Fresh water

Euglenoids
Notes:
Found mostly in still water
Can be auto- or heterotrophic
Abundance of heterotrophic forms may be
indicative of pollution

Euglena

Unicellular Algae
Dinoflagellates

They are covered with cellulose

plates.
They use a pair of flagella for
locomotion.
Most are free-living marine
organisms.
One species causes a green
glow in the ocean.
One species causes red
tides.