Welding

Welding
Welding is a material joining process in which two (or more) parts are
joined at their contacting surfaces by the suitable application of heat
and/or pressure.
In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate
joining.
The faying surfaces are the part surfaces that are to be joined.
Welding is usually performed on parts made of the same metal.

Importance of Welding
Welding provides a permanent joint.
The welded joint can be stronger if a filler metal is used that has
strength properties superior to those of the parents.
Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in
terms of materials usage and fabrication costs.

Limitation of Welding
Most welding operations are performed manually and are expensive

in terms of labor cost

Most welding processes, involving the use of high energy, are
inherently dangerous.
Since welding accomplishes a permanent bond between the
components, it does not allow for convenient disassembly.
The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that are
difficult to detect.

In Autogeneous welding processes, no filler metal is added to the

interface. e.g. electric resistance welding
In Homogeneous processes, filler metal is added & is of the same
type as the parent metal. e. g. welding of low C steel with a low C
welding rod
In Hetrogeneous processes, a filler metal is used but is of a diff. type
from the parent metal. e. g. brazing & soldering processes.

Applications of Welding
Welding is performed in a variety of locations and in a variety of
industries:
(1) Constructions (buildings and bridges).
(2) Piping, pressure vessels, boilers and storage tanks.
(3) Shipbuilding.
(4) Aircraft and aerospace.
(5) Automotive and railroad

Types of Weld Joints

There are five basic types of joints for brining two parts together for
joining.
(a) Butt Joint. In this joint type, the parts lie in the same plane and are
joined at their edges.

Types of Weld Joints

(b) Corner Joint. The parts in a
corner joint form a right angle
and are joined at the corner
of the angle

(C) Lap Joint. This joint type consists

of two overlapping parts.

Types of Weld Joints

(d) Tee Joint. In the tee joint, one part is
perpendicular to the other in the
approximate shape of the letter T.

(e) Edge Joint. The parts in an edge joint

are parallel with at least one of their
edges in common, & the joint is made
at the common edge(s).

Types of Welds
(a) Fillet Weld is one in which filler metal is deposited at the corner of
two intersecting surfaces such as a T or Lap joint.

(b) Bead Weld is one in which when the two surfaces in the same
plane.

(c) Groove Weld is one in which the filler material is deposited in a

groove formed by edge preparation.

(d) Spot or seam weld used without prepared holes. e.g. arc or
resistance.

(e) Plug Weld used with prepared holes.

Edge preparation

It is necessary when thickness increases.

Done by bevelling the edges of pieces.
Five diff. types of chamfers
a. Square
b. V
c. bevel
d. U
e. J

Butt Joint
Square butt: For thickness upto 4.5
*more than 4.5mm edge preparation
is recommended
Single V: For thickness upto 16 mm
Double V: For thickness > 16 mm
Single U & Double U: For greater
than 20 mm

Lap Joint

*Lap joint used to join sheet

less than 3 mm thick.
*Corner joint used to join
sheet upto 5 mm thick.

Corner Joint

-Used to join sheet upto 5 mm thick

-Welded with or without edge preparation

Tee Joints

A- plain tee
B- single beveled: 10 to 20 mm
C- double beveled: For thicker
metals
D- single J
E- double J

Edge Joint

Used for metals upto 3 mm

Classification of Welding Processes

Welding processes are divided into three basic categories:

(A) Fusion welding.
(B) Solid-state welding.
(C) Brazing and Soldering welding.

(A) Fusion Welding

Fusion Welding processes use heat to melt the base metals.
In many fusion welding opns, a filler metal is added to the molten pool
to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the welded
joint.

Classification of Fusion Welding Processes

(a) Arc Welding (AW)
(b) Resistance Welding (RW)
(c) Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Arc Welding
Arc Welding (AW) is a fusion welding process in which joining of the
metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc betn an electrode
& the work.
A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) & filler metal (if
one is used), is formed near the tip of the electrode.

Electric Arc Welding

Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Alternating Current (from Transformer)
More efficiency
Power consumption less
Cost of equipment is less
Higher voltage hence not safe
Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals
Not preferred for welding thin sections
Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode

Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Direct Current (from Generator)
Less efficiency
Power consumption more
Cost of equipment is more
Low voltage safer operation
suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
preferred for welding thin sections
Positive terminal connected to the work
Negative terminal connected to the electrode

What is polarity in welding?

Polarity in welding has to do with the direction of the current in

the welding process.
1. DC Straight polarity: current flows from the electrode to the
weld surface and creates considerable heat in the metal.
2. DC Reverse polarity: current is backwards and is flowing from
the metal to the electrode causing a grater concentration of
heat at the electrode.

Electrodes
Electrodes used in Arc Welding processes are classified as
1. Consumable electrodes provide the source of the filler metal in arc
welding.
They are available in two principal forms:
- Rods (225 to 450 mm long and 9.5 mm or less in dia.)
- Wires which can be continuously fed into the welding process
2. Non-consumable electrodes are made of tungsten (or carbon), which
resist melting by the arc.

Arc shielding
At the high temperatures in arc welding, the metals being joined are
very chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the
air.
Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc, &
molten weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibits
exposure of the weld metal to air.
Mechanical properties of the weld joint can be seriously changed by
these reactions.
Common shielding gases include argon and helium, both of which are
inert.

Arc Shielding
Flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides & other
unwanted contaminants or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts & becomes a liquid slag, covering the
operation & protecting the molten weld . The slag hardens upon
cooling & must be removed
The methods of flux application include
(1) Pouring granular flux onto the welding operation.
(2) Using a rod electrode coated with flux material.
(3) Using tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the core &
released as electrode is consumed.

Types of Arc Welding

Arc Welding (AW) is a fusion welding process in which joining of the
metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc betn an electrode
Arc Welding processes use consumable electrodes
(1) Shielding Metal Arc Welding.
(2) Gas Metal Arc Welding.
(3) Flux-cored Arc Welding.
(4) Submerged Arc Welding.
Arc Welding processes use non-consumable electrodes
(1) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding.

Shielding Metal Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is an arc welding process that
uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated
with chemicals that provide flux and shielded.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is an arc welding process in which the
electrode is a consumable bare wire & shielding is accomplished by
flooding the arc with a gas. The bare wire is fed continuously &
automatically from a spool through the welding gun.

Flux-cored Arc Welding

Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is an arc welding process in which the
electrode is a continuous consumable tubing that contains flux & other
ingredients in its core.

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is an arc welding process that uses a
continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, & arc shielding is
provided by a cover of granular flux. The electrode wire is fed
automatically from a coil into the arc.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is an arc welding process that uses
a non-consumable tungsten electrode & an inert gas for arc
shielding.
The term TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas welding) is often applied to
this process.

TIG welding

Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion welding processes that
utilizes a combination of heat & pressure to accomplish joining, the
heat being generated by electrical resistance to current flow at the
junction to be welded.
The amount of heat generated at the contacting area to be welded,
Q = I2Rt.k joules
Where I = current in amperes
R = resistance of the circuit in ohms
t = time during which current flows, in seconds
k = a constant < 1

Types of Resistance welding Processes

(1) Resistance Spot Welding

(2) Resistance Seam Welding
(3) Resistance Projection Welding

Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance Spot welding (RSW) is a resistance welding process in
which fusion of the faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes.
The process is used to join sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm or
less.
The size & shape of the weld spot is determined by the electrode tip,
the most common electrode shapes are round & square.

Resistance Spot Welding

(1) Parts inserted betn open electrodes.

(2) Electrodes close & force is applied
(3) Weld time (current is switched on)
(4) Current is turned off but force is maintained or increased
(5) Electrodes are opened, & the welded assembly is removed.

Resistance Spot Welding

Resistance Seam Welding

Resistance Seam welding (RSEW) the stick-shaped electrodes in
spot welding are replaced by rotating wheels, & a series of
overlapping spot welds is made along the lap joint.
Since the operation is usually carried out continuously, rather than
discretely, the seams should be along a straight or uniformly curved
line.

Resistance Seam Welding

Used in manufacture of tanks, tubes & other articles of steel & non
ferrous metals which have airtight joint.
Thickness of plate is 0.25 to 3.2 mm.

Resistance Projection Welding

The current is concentrated at the spot to be welded, when
simple projections are embossed on one of the sheet.
- used for joining nuts, bolts & studs to steel plates in car bodies

FIG. Resistance projection welding: (a) before and (b) after.

Resistance Projection Welding

.

Solid- state Welding Processes

In solid-state welding, joining of the part surfaces is achieved by
(1)pressure alone or (2) heat and pressure.
Types of Solid-state welding processes
(1) Forge Welding.
(2) Cold Welding.
(3) Roll Welding.
(4) Diffusion Welding.
(5) Friction Welding.
(6) Ultrasonic Welding.

Solid- state Welding Processes

Forge Welding is a welding process in which the components to be
joined are heated to hot working temperatures & then forged together
by hammer or other means.
used to manufacture seamless piping, shotgun barrels.

 Cold Welding (CW) is a solid-state welding process accomplished by

applying high pressure betn clean contacting surfaces at room
temperature.
used to manufacture kitchen utensils (tea kettles, racks), lap & butt
welding of wires, trolley wires & home wiring.

Diffusion Welding (DFW) is a solid-state welding process that results

from the application of heat & pressure, with sufficient time allowed for
diffusion & joining to occur.
Filled gold is obtained by placing gold face sheets over a silver or
copper core.

Solid- state Welding Processes

Roll Welding (ROW) is a solid-state welding process in which
pressure sufficient to cause joining is applied by means of rolls,
either with or without external application of heat
used in joining dissimilar materials.

Solid- state Welding Processes

Friction Welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process in which
joining is achieved by frictional heat combined with pressure.
The friction is induced by mechanical rubbing betn the two surfaces,
usually by rotation of one part relative to the other.

Friction-Welding Process

FIG. Sequence of operations in the friction-welding process. (a) The part on the left is rotated at high speed.
(b) The part on the right is brought into contact under an axial force. (c) The axial force is increased; flash
begins to form. (d) The part on the left stops rotating. The weld is completed. Flash can be removed by
machining or grinding.

Friction-Welding Process

Used for circular part i.e. butt welding of round bars or tubes,
dissimilar metals can easily joined e.g. aluminium to steel, copper to
steel, copper to aluminium.

Solid- state Welding Processes

Ultrasonic Welding (USW) is a solid-state welding process in which
two components are held together under modest clamping force, &
oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are applied to the
interface to cause joining.
Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials such as aluminum and
copper.

Ultrasonic-Welding

FIG. (a) Components of an ultrasonic-welding machine for lap welds. The lateral
vibrations of the tool tip case plastic deformation & bonding at the interface of the
workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller.

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Oxyfule Gas Welding (OFW) is the term used to describe the group of
fusion operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen to
perform welding
Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler
material and method of moving torch

The temperature generated

during the process is 33000c

Oxyacetylene Welding
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) is a fusion welding process performed
by a high-temperature flame from combustion of acetylene and
oxygen. The flame is directed by a welding torch. A filler metal is
sometimes added.

Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

OAW is a manual process in which the welder must personally

control the the torch movement and filler rod application

Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas at extremely high

pressure.

Typical Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) Station

GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...

1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the
work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges

4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve

Oxy-Acetylene welding

Regulator

Each regulator has two gauges mounted on a single manifold, one

indicates cylinder pressure and the other indicates working pressure
for the torch

purpose:
1. Reduce high cylinder pressures
to suitable low working pressures.
2. Maintain an even flow of these
pressures.

Regulator

Regulator Hoses

Hoses are are fabricated from

rubber
Oxygen hoses are green in color
and have right hand thread.
Acetylene hoses are red in color
with left hand thread.
Left hand threads can be
identified by a groove in the body
of the nut.

Check Valves &

Flashback Arrestors

Check valves allow gas flow in

one direction only
Flashback arrestors are
designed to eliminate the
possibility of an explosion at
the cylinder.
Combination Check/
Flashback Valves can be
placed at the torch or
regulator.

Parts of a welding torch

Torch body is the part of the torch that is held like a pencil, it
contains two needle valves to control flow of gas
Welding head contains mixer, mixing throat, and the welding tip

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding

and cutting operations:
(a) neutral flame;
(b) oxidizing flame;
(c) carburizing, or reducing flame.

neutral flame
- burns equal amounts
of oxygen and
acetylene and has a
clear edged inner cone
(32000c)

Used for welding steels,

aluminium, copper and cast
iron

oxidizing flame

If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more

pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter is called Oxidizing
flame
Has the highest temperature about 34000c
Used for welding brass and brazing operation

carburizing, or reducing flame.

Excess acetylene with an acetylene feather two to three times
the length of the inner cone (30000c)
used some in hard surfacing, adds carbon to metal

Oxyfuel welding (Gas Welding)

Thermit Welding

Thermit Welding
8Al + 3Fe3O4 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + Heat

Brazing
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted &
distributed by capillary action betn the faying surfaces of the metal
parts being joined
No melting of the base
metals occurs in brazing,
only the filler melts.
In brazing, the filler
metal has a melting
temperature that is
above 450 oC but below
the M.P. of the base
metals to be joined.

Advantages of Brazing
(1) Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals.
(2) Brazing can be applied to join thin-walled parts that can not be
welded.
(3) In general, less heat & power are required than fusion welding.
(4) Problem with the heat affected zone in the base metal near the joint
is reduced.
(5) Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding processes can
be
brazed.

Disadvantages of Brazing
(1)

joint strength is generally less that that of a welded joint.

(2) high service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint.

Soldering
Soldering is similar to brazing & can be defined as a joining process
in which a filler metal with melting point not exceeding 450 oC is melted
& distributed by capillary action betn the faying surfaces.
Advantages of Soldering
(1) Low energy input relative to brazing and fusion.
(2) Variety of heating methods available.
(3) Good thermal & electrical conductivity in the joint.
(4) Capability to make airtight & liquid-tight seams for containers
(5) easy to repair and rework.
Disadvantages of Soldering
(1) Low joint strength
(2) Possible weaking or melting of the joint in elevated temperature