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CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY
CHEMISTRY

CHEMISTRY SK016
Chapter

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0

08/16/11

Topics

Hours

Matter
Atomic Structure
Periodic Table
Chemical Bonding
State of Matter
Chemical Equilibrium
Ionic Equilibria
Total

7
7
4
2
7
5
12
54

matter

CHEMISTRY SK026
Chapter

Topic

8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0

Thermochemistry
Electrochemistry
Reaction Kinetics
Intro To Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Compounds
Haloalkanes (Alkyl halides)
Hydroxy compounds

08/16/11

matter

Hours

4
6
7
4
8
3
4
3
3

CHEMISTRY SK026
Chapter

16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0

08/16/11

Topic

Carbonyl
Carboxylic acids & Derivatives
Amines
Amino acids and Proteins
Polymers

matter

Hour

4
4
5
2
1

ASSESSMENT
1. COURSEWORK (20%)
Continuous evaluation (tutorial/test/quiz) - 10%
Practical work
- 10%
2. MID-SEMESTER EXAMINATION

- 10%

3. FINAL EXAMINATION (70%)


Paper 1 (30 multiple choice questions)- 30%
Paper 2 (Part A-structured)
(Part B-long structured)
-100%
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matter

REFERENCE BOOKS
CHEMISTRY ,9th Ed. Raymond Chang, McGraw-Hill
CHEMISTRY The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change, 3rd Ed. Martin Silberberg, McGraw Hill
CHEMISTRY The Central Science, 9th Ed. Theodore
L.Brown, H.Eugene LeMay,Jr, Bruce E Bursten,
Pearson Education
GENERAL CHEMISTRY Principle & Structure, 6th Ed.
James E Brady, John Wiley and Sons.

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matter

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Principle and Modern


Applications, 8th Ed. Ralph H. Petrucci, William
S. Harwood, Prentice-Hall
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 7th Ed T.W.Graham
Solomon,Craig B.Fryhle, John Wiley and Sons
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 4th Ed L.G. Wade, Jr,
Prentice Hall
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 6th Ed John McMurry,
Thompson Brooks/Cole

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matter

Chapter 1 : MATTER
1.1 Atoms and Molecules
1.2 Mole Concept
1.3 Stoichiometry

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matter

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

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matter

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
(a) Describe proton, electron and neutron in
terms of the relative mass and relative
charge.
(b) Define proton number, Z, nucleon
number, A and isotope.
(c) Write isotope notation.
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matter

10

Introduction
Matter
Anything that occupies space and has
mass.
e.g: air, water, animals, trees, atoms, etc
Matter may consists of atoms, molecules or
ions.

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matter

11

Classifying Matter

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matter

12

A substance is a form of matter that has


a definite or constant composition and
distinct properties.
Example: H2O, NH3, O2
A mixture is a combination of two or
more substances in which the
substances retain their identity.
Example : air, milk, cement

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matter

13

An element is a substance that cannot be


separated into simpler substances by
chemical means.
Example : Na, K, Al,Fe
A compound is a substance composed of
atoms of two or more elements chemically
united in fixed proportion.
Example : CO2, H2O, CuO

Three States of Matter

SOLID
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LIQUID
matter

GAS
15

1.1 Atoms and Molecules


a) Atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of a chemical
element/compound.
In an atom, there are 3 subatomic particles:
- Proton (p)
- Neutron (n)
- Electron (e)

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matter

16

Modern Model of the Atom

Electrons move around the region of the atom.


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matter

17

All neutral atoms can be identified by the


number of protons and neutrons they
contain.

Proton number (Z) is the number of


protons in the nucleus of the atom of an
element (which is equal to the number of
electrons). Protons number is also known as
atomic number.

Nucleon number (A) is the total number


of protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of the atom of an element. Also
known as mass number.

Subatomic Particles
Particle

Mass

Charge

Charge

(gram)

(Coulomb)

(units)

Electron (e)

9.1 x 10-28

-1.6 x 10-19

-1

Proton (p)

1.67 x 10-24

+1.6 x 10-19

+1

Neutron (n)

1.67 x 10-24

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matter

19

Isotope
Isotopes are two or more atoms of the same
element that have the same proton number in
their nucleus but different nucleon number.

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matter

20

Examples:

1
1

235
92

2
1

H(D)

238
92

3
1

H(T)

Isotope Notation
An atom can be represented by an isotope
notation ( atomic symbol )

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X=

Element symbol

Z =

Proton number of X (p)

A=
=

Nucleon number of X
p+n

matter

22

Nucleon number of
mercury, A = 202

Total charge on the


ion

The number of neutrons


=A Z
= 202 80
= 122

Proton number
of mercury,
Z = 80

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matter

23

In

a neutral atom:
number of protons equals number of
electrons

In

a positive ion:
number of protons is more than number of
electrons

In

a negative ion:
number of protons is less than number of
electrons

Exercise 1
Give the number of protons, neutrons, electrons
and charge in each of the following species:
Symbol

Number of :
Proton

Charge

Neutron Electron

200
80

Hg

63
29

Cu

O2

17
8

Co3

59
27
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matter

25

Exercise 2
Write the appropriate notation for each of the
following nuclide :
Species

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Number of :
Proton

Neutron

Electron

10

matter

Notation
for nuclide

26

b) Molecules
A molecule consists of a small number of
atoms joined together by bonds.

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matter

27

A diatomic molecule
Contains only two atoms
Ex : H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
A polyatomic molecule
Contains more than two atoms
Ex : O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

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matter

28

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, student should be able
to :
(a) Define relative atomic mass, Ar and
relative molecular mass, Mr based on
the C-12 scale.
(b) Calculate the average atomic mass of an
element given the relative abundance of
isotopes or a mass spectrum.
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matter

29

Relative Mass
i.

Relative Atomic Mass, Ar


A mass of one atom of an element
compared to 1/12 mass of one atom of 12C
with the mass 12.000 amu

Mass of one atom of element


Re lative atomic mass, A r
1 X Mass of one atom of 12 C
12

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matter

30

Mass of an atom is often expressed in atomic


mass unit, amu (or u).
Atomic mass unit, amu is defined to be one
twelfth of the mass of 12C atom
Mass of a 12C atom is given a value of exactly 12
amu
1 u = 1.660538710-24 g
The relative isotopic mass is the mass of an
atom, scaled with 12C.
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31

Example 1
Determine the relative atomic mass of an
element Y if the ratio of the atomic mass of Y to
carbon-12 atom is 0.45

ANSWER:

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matter

32

ii) Relative Molecular Mass, Mr


A mass of one molecule of a
compound compared to 1/12 mass of one
atom of 12C with the mass 12.000amu
Relative molecular mass, Mr

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1
12

Mass of one molecule


x Mass of one atom of

matter

12

33

The relative molecular mass of a


compound is the summation of the
relative atomic masses of all atoms in
a molecular formula.

Example 2
Calculate the relative molecular mass of
C5H5N,
Ar C = 12.01
Ar H = 1.01
Ar N = 14.01

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matter

35

MASS SPECTROMETER
An atom is very light and its mass cannot be
measured directly
A mass spectrometer is an instrument used to
measure the precise masses and relative
quantity of atoms and molecules

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36

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matter

37

Mass Spectrum of Monoatomic Elements


Modern mass
spectrum converts
the abundance into
percent abundance

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38

Relative abundance

Mass Spectrum of Magnesium


The mass spectrum of Mg
shows that Mg consists of 3
isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg and
26
Mg.

63
8.1 9.1
24

25 26

The height of each line is


proportional to the
abundance of each isotope.
m/e
24
(amu) Mg is the most abundant of

the 3 isotopes

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matter

39

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, student should be able
to :
(a) Calculate the average atomic mass of an
element given the relative abundances of
isotopes or a mass spectrum.

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matter

40

How to calculate the relative atomic


mass, Ar from mass spectrum?
Ar is calculated using data from the mass
spectrum.
The average of atomic masses of the entire
elements isotope as found in a particular
environment is the relative atomic mass, Ar of
the atom.
(isotopic mass abundance)

Average atomic mass


abundance
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matter

41

Example 1:
Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon
from the mass spectrum.

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42

Solution:
Average atomic
mass of Ne
=

= ( % a b u n d a n c e i s o t o p i c m a s s )
% abundance

(9 0 .5 2 0 u ) (0 .3 2 1 u ) (9 .2 2 2 u )
(9 0 .5 0 .3 9 .2 )

= 20.2 u
Relative atomic mass Ne = 20.2

Example 2:
Copper occurs naturally as mixture of
69.09% of 63Cu and 30.91% of 65Cu. The
isotopic masses of 63Cu and 65Cu are 62.93
u and 64.93 u respectively. Calculate the
relative atomic mass of copper.

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44

Solution:
Average atomic
mass of Cu
=
=

(% abundance isotopic mass)

=
% abundanc e

( 6 9 .0 9 6 2 .9 3 u ) (3 0 .9 1 6 4 .9 3 u )
( 6 9 .0 9 3 0 .9 1)

63.55 u

Relative atomic mass Cu = 63.55

Example 3:
Naturally occurring iridium, Ir is composed
of two isotopes, 191Ir and 193Ir in the ratio of
5:8. The relative isotopic mass of 191Ir and
193
Ir are 191.021 u and 193.025 u
respectively. Calculate the relative atomic
mass of Iridium

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46

Solution:

Average atomic = abundance isotopic mass


abundance

mass of Ir
=
=

(5 191.021 u) (8 193.025 u)
(5 8 )

192.254 u

Relative atomic mass Ir = 192.254


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47

Mass Spectrum of Molecular


Elements
A sample of chlorine which contains 2 isotopes
with nucleon number 35 and 37 is analyzed
in a mass spectrometer. How many peaks
would be expected in the mass spectrum of
chlorine?

Cl-35Cl
35
Cl-37Cl
37
Cl-37Cl
35

MASS SPECTROMETER

Cl2

Cl-35Cl+
35
Cl-37Cl+
37
Cl-37Cl+
35

Cl2 + e

Cl2+ + 2e

Cl2 + e

2Cl+ + 2e

Cl+
37
Cl+
35

Mass Spectrum of Diatomic


Elements

Exercise:
How many peaks would be expected in a mass
spectrum of X2 which consists of 3 isotopes?

MATTER
1.2 Mole Concept

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:

a) Define mole in terms of mass of


carbon-12 and Avogadros constant, NA

Avogadros Number, NA

Atoms and molecules are so small impossible


to count
A unit called mole (abbreviated mol) is devised
to count chemical substances by weighing them
A mole is the amount of matter that contains as
many objects as the number of atoms in
exactly 12.00 g of carbon-12 isotope
The number of atoms in 12 g of 12C is called
Avogadros number, NA = 6.02 x 1023

Example:
1 mol of Cu contains 6.02 1023 Cu atoms

1 mol of O2 contains 6.02 1023 O2 molecules


O23atoms
2 6.02 10
1 mol of NH3 contains 6.02 1023NH3 molecules
6.02 10N23atoms
H23atoms
3 6.02 10

1 mol of CuCl2 contains 6.02 1023Cu2+ ions


- ions
Cl23
2 6.02 10

Mole and Mass


Example:
Relative atomic mass for carbon, C = 12.01
Mass of 1 C atom = 12.01 amu
Mass of 1 mol C atoms = 12.01 g
Mass of 1 mol C atoms consists of 6.02 x 10 23 C atoms
= 12.01 g

1 2 .0 1 g
Mass of 1 C atom =
6 .0 2 x 1 0

23

= 1.995 x 10-23 g

12.01 amu = 1.995 x 10-23 g


1 .9 9 5 x 1 0 23 g
1 amu =
1 2 .0 1 a m u

= 1.66 x 10-23 g

Example:
From the periodic table, Ar of nitrogen, N is 14.01

The mass of 1 N atom14.01


=
amu

g
The mass of 1 mol of N atoms 14.01
=

The molar mass of N atom 14.01


=
g mol1

The molar mass of nitrogen gas28.02


=
g mol

The nucleon number of N = 14

Mr of CH4 is 16.0
5
The mass of 1 CH4 molecule = 16.05 amu

The mass of 1 mol of CH4 molecules =16.05 g

The molar mass of CH4 molecule =16.05 g


mol1

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
(a) Interconvert between moles, mass,
number of particles, molar volume of gas
at STP and room temperature.
(b) Define the terms empirical & molecular
formulae
(c) Determine empirical and molecular
formulae from mass composition or
combustion data.
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MATTER

61

Example 1:
Calculate the number of moles of molecules for
3.011 x 1023 molecules of oxygen gas.
Solution:
6.02 x 1023 molecules of O2

1 mol of O2 molecules

23
3
.
0
1
1

1
0
m o le c u le s 1 m o l
23
3.011 x 10 molecules of O2
6 . 0 2 1 0 23 m o le c u le s

= 0.5000 mol of O2 molecules

Example 2:
Calculate the number of moles of atoms for
1.204 x 1023 molecules of nitrogen gas.
Solution:
1 mol of N2 molecules

6.02 x 1023 molecules of N2

2 mol of N atoms

1.204 x 1023 molecules of N2

1 .2 0 4 1 0 23 m o le c u le s 2 m o l

6 .0 2 1 0 23 m o le c u le s

= 0.4000 mol of N atoms

Example 3:
Calculate the mass of 0.25 mol of chlorine gas.
Solution:
1 mol Cl2

2 35.45 g

2 3 5 .4 5 g 0 .2 5 m o l

0.25 mol Cl2


1 m ol

18 g
or

mass = mol x molar mass


= 0.25 mol x (2 x 35.45 g mol-1)
= 18 g

Example 4:
Calculate the mass of 7.528 x 1023 molecules of
methane, CH4
Solution:
6.02 x 1023 CH4 molecules (12.01 + 4(1.01)) g
7.528 x 1023 CH4 molecules 1 6 . 0 5 g 7 . 5 2 82 3 1 0
6 .0 2 1 0
= 20.06 g

23

Molar Volume of Gases

Avogadro (1811) stated that equal volumes of gases


at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules
Molar volume is a volume occupied by 1 mol of gas
At standard temperature and pressure (STP), the
molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.4 L mol 1
Standard

Temperature

273.15 K 1 atm
0 C101325 N m-2
101325 Pa

and Pressure

760 mmHg

Standard Molar Volume

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MATTER

67

At room conditions (1 atm, 25 C), the molar


volume of a gas = 24 L mol-1

Example 1:
Calculate the volume occupied by 1.60 mol of
Cl2 gas at STP.
Solution:
At STP,
1 mol Cl2

occupies22.4 L

1.60 mol Cl2 occupies

1 .6 0 m o l 2 2 .4 L
1m ol
= 35.8 L

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MATTER

69

Example 2:
Calculate the volume occupied by 19.61 g of
N2 at STP
Solution:
1 mol of N2
1 9 .6 1 g
2 ( 1 4 . 0 1 ) g m o l 1

occupies

22.4 L

1 9 .6 1

m o l 2 2 .4 L
2 (1 4 . 0 1)

of N2 occupies
1m ol

= 15.7 L
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MATTER

70

Example 3:
0.50 mol methane, CH4 gas is kept in a cylinder at
STP. Calculate:
(a) The mass of the gas
(b) The volume of the cylinder
(c) The number of hydrogen atoms in the cylinder
Solution:
16.05
g
(a) Mass of 1 mol CH4
=

1 6 .0 5 g 0 .5 0 m o l
Mass of 0.50 mol CH4
=
1m ol
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MATTER

= 8.0 g

71

(b) At STP; 1 mol CH4 gas occupies 22.4 L


2 2 .4 L 0 .5 0 m o l
0.50 mol CH4 gas occupies
1m ol
= 11 L

(c) 1 mol of CH4 molecules 4 mol of H atoms


0.50 mol of CH4 molecules 2 mol of H atoms

1 mol of H atoms

6.02 x 1023 atoms

2 mol of H atoms

2 x 6.02 x 1023 atoms

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1.2 x 1024 atoms


MATTER

72

Exercise
A sample of CO2 has a volume of 56 cm3 at STP.
Calculate:
a) The number of moles of gas molecules
(0.0025 mol)
a) The number of CO2 molecules
(1.506 x 1021 molecules)
a) The number of oxygen atoms in the sample
(3.011x1021atoms)
Notes:
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1 dm3
1 dm3

= 1000 cm3
=1L
MATTER

73

Empirical And Molecular Formulae


- Empirical formula => chemical formula
that shows the simplest ratio of all
elements in a molecule.
- Molecular formula => formula that show
the actual number of atoms of each
element in a molecule.
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MATTER

74

- The relationship between empirical formula


and molecular formula is :
Molecular formula = n ( empirical formula )

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MATTER

75

Example:
A sample of hydrocarbon contains 85.7%
carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Its
molar mass is 56. Determine the empirical
formula and molecular formula of the
compound.

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MATTER

76

Solution:
C

M ass

8 5 .7

1 4 .3

N um ber
o f m o le s

8 5 .7
1 2 .0 1

1 4 .3
1 .0 1

S im p le s t r a tio

= 7 .1 3 5 7

= 1 4 .1 5 8 4

1 .9 8 4
2

E m p ir ic a l fo r m u la = C H

56
n
1 4 .0 3
3 .9 9
4

M o le c u la r fo r m u la n ( C H 2 )
M o le c u la r fo r m u la C 4 H

Exercise:
A combustion of 0.202 g of an organic sample
that contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
produce 0.361g carbon dioxide and 0.147 g water.
If the relative molecular mass of the sample is
148, what is the molecular formula of the sample?
Answer : C6H12O4

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MATTER

79

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
(a) Define and perform calculation for each of
the following concentration measurements :
i) molarity (M)
ii) molality(m)
iii) mole fraction, X
iv) percentage by mass, % w/w
v) percentage by volume, %v/v
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MATTER

80

Concentration of Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of
two or more substances:
solvent + solute(s)
e.g: sugar + water solution
sugar solute
water
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MATTER

solvent
81

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MATTER

82

Concentration of a solution can be expressed


in various ways :
a) molarity
b) molality
c) mole fraction
d) percentage by mass
e) percentage by volume

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MATTER

83

a) Molarity
Molarity is the number of moles of
solute in 1 litre of solution
m o le s o f s o lu te ( m o l)
m o la r ity , M
v o lu m e o f s o lu tio n ( L )

Units of molarity:
mol L-1
mol dm-3
M
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MATTER

84

Example 1:
Determine the molarity of a solution
containing 29.22 g of sodium chloride, NaCl
in a 2.00 L solution.

Solution:

N aC l

nN

aC l

s o lu tio n

2 9 .2 2

m o l

( 2 2 .9 9 3 5 .4 5 )

2 .0 0 L
0.250 mol L-1

Example 2:
How many grams of calcium chloride, CaCl2
should be used to prepare 250.00 mL
solution with a concentration of 0.500 M

Solution:

C a C l2

M
=

C a C l2

x V s o lu t io n

0 .5 0 0 m o l L

m a ss o f C a C l2 n

C a C l2

2 5 0 .0 0 1 0

x m o la r m a s s

= ( 0 .5 0 0 2 5 0 .0 0 1 0 3 ) m o l
( 4 0 .0 8 + 2 ( 3 5 .4 5 ) ) g m o l1

1 3 .9 g

b) Molality
Molality is the number of moles of
solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent
m o le s o f s o lu te ( m o l)
m o la lity , m
m a s s o f s o lv e n t ( k g )

Units of molality:
mol kg-1
molal
m
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MATTER

89

Example:
What is the molality of a solution
prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl2 in
271 g of water?

Solution:

n C a C l2

3 2 .0 g

-1
4 0 .0 8 2 (3 5 .4 5 ) g m o l

3 2 .0

m
o
l

M o la lit y o f C a C l2 1 1 0 . 9 8 3
27110 kg

1 .0 6 m o l k g

Exercise:
Calculate the molality of a solution
prepared by dissolving 24.52 g of sulphuric
acid in 200.00 mL of distilled water.
(Density of water = 1 g mL-1)
Ans = 1.250 mol kg-1

c) Mole Fraction (X)


Mole fraction is the ratio of number of
moles of one component to the total
number of moles of all component present.
For a solution containing A, B and C:
M o l fr a c t io n o f A , X

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MATTER

nA
nA

nT

nA
nB nC

93

Mol fraction is always smaller than 1


The total mol fraction in a mixture
(solution) is equal to one.
XA + XB + XC + X.. = 1
Mole fraction has no unit (dimensionless)
since it is a ratio of two similar quantities.
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MATTER

94

Example:
A sample of ethanol, C2H5OH contains
200.0 g of ethanol and 150.0 g of water.
Calculate the mole fraction of
(a) ethanol
(b) water
in the solution.

Solution:
n

e th a n o l

w a te r

e th a n o l

2 0 0 .0 g
( 2 ( 1 2 . 0 1 ) 5 ( 1 . 0 1 ) 1 6 . 0 0 ) g m o l 1

1 5 0 .0 g
1
(2 (1 .0 1 ) 1 6 .0 0 ) g m o l

2 0 0 .0

4 5 .0 7
2 0 0 .0 m o l

4 5 .0 7

0 .3 4 7 7

m o l

1 5 0 .0 m o l

1 8 .0 2

w a te r

= 1 0 .3 4 7 7
= 0 .6 5 2 3

d) Percentage by Mass (%w/w)


Percentage by mass is defined as the
percentage of the mass of solute per mass
of solution.

m
a
s
s
o
f
s
o
l
u
t
e
% w w
x100
m a s s o f s o lu t io n
Note:
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
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MATTER

98

Example:
A sample of 0.892 g of potassium
chloride, KCl is dissolved in 54.362 g of
water. What is the percent by mass of KCl
in the solution?
Solution:
0 .8 9 2 g
% m a ss
100%
0 .8 9 2 g 5 4 .3 6 2 g
=

1 .6 1 %

Exercise:
A solution is made by dissolving 4.2 g of
sodium chloride, NaCl in 100.00 mL of
water. Calculate the mass percent of
sodium chloride in the solution.
Answer = 4.0%

e) Percentage by Volume (%V / V)


Percentage by volume is defined as the
percentage of volume of solute in milliliter per
volume of solution in milliliter.

% v

v o lu m e o f s o lu te

x 100
v
v o lu m e o f s o lu tio n

N o te :

m a s s o f s o lu t io n
D e n s it y o f s o lu t io n
v o lu m e o f s o lu t io n
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MATTER

101

Example 1:
25 mL of benzene is mixed with 125 mL of
acetone. Calculate the volume percent of
benzene solution.
Solution:
% v o lu m e

25 m L
100%
25 m L 125 m L

= 17%

Example 2:
A sample of 250.00 mL ethanol is labeled
as 35.5% (v/v) ethanol. How many
milliliters of ethanol does the solution
contain?

Solution:

% v o lu m e o f e t h a n o l
V e th a n o l

V e th a n o l
100%
V s o lu t io n

3 5 .5 % 2 5 0 .0 0 m L

100%

8 8 .8 m L

Example 3:
A 6.25 m of sodium hydroxide, NaOH
solution has has a density of 1.33 g mL-1
at 20 C. Calculate the concentration
NaOH in:
(a) molarity
(b) mole fraction
(c) percent by mass

Solution:
(a ) M

n NaO H
=
V s o lu tio n

6 .2 5 m o f N a O H
th e r e is 6 .2 5 m o l o f N a O H in 1 k g o f w a te r

fo r a s o lu tio n c o n s is ts o f 6 .2 5 m o l o f N a O H a n d 1
k g o f w a te r;
V

s o lu tio n

m a s s s o lu tio n
=
s o lu tio n

m a s s s o lu tio n = m a s s N a O H + m a s s w a t e r
m a s s NaO H = n

N aO H

m o la r m a s s o f N a O H

= 6 .2 5 m o l ( 2 2 .9 9 + 1 6 .0 0 + 1 .0 1 ) g m o l1
= 250 g

m a s s s o lu tio n = 2 5 0 g + 1 0 0 0 g
= 1250 g
V

s o lu tio n

1250 g
1 .3 3 g m L

N aO H

6 .2 5 m o l
=
3
1250

1
0
L

1 .3 3

= 6 .6 5 m o l L

(b ) X

N aO H

n NaO H
n N a O H n w a te r

1 k g o f w a te r c o n ta in s 6 .2 5 m o l o f N a O H
n

w a te r

m a s s w a te r
=
m o la r m a s s o f w a te r
=

N aO H

1000 g
(2 (1 .0 1 ) 1 6 .0 0 ) g m o l

6 .2 5 m o l
1000

6
.
2
5
m
o
l

m
o
l

1 8 .0 2

= 0 .1 0 1

(c ) % (w /w ) o f N a O H

m a s s NaO H
=
m a ss NaO H m a s s

100%
w a te r

250 g
=
100%
250 g 1000 g
= 2 0 .0 %

Exercise:
An 8.00%(w/w) aqueous solution of
ammonia has a density of 0.9651 g mL-1.
Calculate the
(a)
molality
(b)
molarity
(c)
mole fraction
of the NH3 solution
Answer:

a) 5.10 mol kg-1


b) 4.53 mol L-1
c) 0.0842

MATTER
1.3 Stoichiometry

Learning Outcome
At the end of the lesson, students should be able
to:
a) Determine the oxidation number of an
element in a chemical formula.
b) Write and balance :
i) Chemical equation by inspection method
ii) redox equation by ion-electron method

Balancing Chemical Equation


A chemical equation shows a chemical
reaction using symbols for the reactants and
products.
The formulae of the reactants are written on
the left side of the equation while the
products are on the right.

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MATTER

114

Example:

xA +

yB

zC +

Reactants

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wD

Products

MATTER

115

A chemical equation must have an equal number


of atoms of each element on each side of the
arrow
The number x, y, z and w, showing the relative
number of molecules reacting, are called the
stoichiometric coefficients.
A balanced equation should contain the smallest
possible whole-number coefficients
The methods to balance an equation:
a) Inspection method
b) Ion-electron method
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MATTER

116

Inspection Method
1. Write down the unbalanced equation. Write the
correct formulae for the reactants and products.
1. Balance the metallic atom, followed by non-metallic
atoms.
1. Balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
1. Check to ensure that the total number of atoms of
each element is the same on both sides of equation.

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MATTER

117

Example:
Balance the chemical equation by applying the
inspection method.
NH3 + CuO Cu + N2 + H2O

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MATTER

118

Exercise
Balance the chemical equation below by applying
inspection method.
1. Fe(OH)3 + H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
2. C6H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
3. N2H4 + H2O2 HNO3 + H2O
4. ClO2 + H2O HClO3 + HCl

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MATTER

119

Redox Reaction
Mainly for redox (reduction-oxidation)
reaction

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MATTER

120

Oxidation is defined as a process of electron loss.


The substance undergoes oxidation
loses one or more electrons.
increase in oxidation number
act as an reducing agent (electron donor)

Half equation representing oxidation:


Mg Mg2+ 2e
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
2Cl- Cl2 + 2e

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MATTER

121

Reduction is defined as a process of electron gain.


The substance undergoes reduction

gains one or more electrons.

decrease in oxidation number

act as an oxidizing agent (electron acceptor)

Half equation representing reduction:


Br2 + 2e BrSn4+ + 2e Sn2+
Al3+ + 3e Al

Oxidation numbers of any atoms can be


determined by applying the following rules:
1. For monoatomic ions,
oxidation number = the charge on the ion
e.g: ion
oxidation number
Na+
+1
Cl-1
Al3+
+3
S2-2

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MATTER

123

2. For free elements, e.g: Na, Fe, O2, Br2, P4, S8


oxidation number on each atom = 0
1. For most cases, oxidation number for
O
= -2
H
= +1
Halogens = -1

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MATTER

124

Exception:
1. H bonded to metal (e.g: NaH, MgH2) oxidation number
for H = -1
1. Halogen bonded to oxygen (e.g: Cl2O7)
number for halogen = +ve

oxidation

1. In a neutral compound (e.g: H2O, KMnO4) the total of


oxidation number of every atoms that made up the
molecule = 0
1. In a polyatomic ion (e.g: MnO4-, NO3-)
the total
oxidation number of every atoms that made up the
molecule = net charge on the ion

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MATTER

125

Exercise
1. Assign the oxidation number of Mn in the following
chemical compounds.
i.
MnO2
ii. MnO41. Assign the oxidation number of Cl in the following
chemical compounds.
i.
KClO3
ii. Cl2O721. Assign the oxidation number of following:
i.
Cr in K2Cr2O7
ii. U in UO22+
iii. C in C2O4208/16/11

MATTER

126

Balancing Redox Reaction


Redox reaction may occur in acidic and basic
solutions.
Follow the steps systematically so that
equations become easier to balance.

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MATTER

127

Balancing Redox Reaction In Acidic


Solution
Fe2+ + MnO4- Fe3+ + Mn2+
1. Separate the equation into two halfreactions: reduction reaction and oxidation
reaction
i. Fe2+ Fe3+
ii. MnO4- Mn2+
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MATTER

128

1. Balance atoms other than O and H in each


half-reaction separately

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i.

Fe2+ Fe3+

ii.

MnO4- Mn2+

MATTER

129

3. Add H2O to balance the O atoms


Add H+ to balance the H atoms
i. Fe2+ Fe3+
2+
ii. MnO4- +

Mn
+
+
8H

4H2O

4. Add electrons to balance the charges


i. Fe2+ Fe3+ +
ii. MnO4- + 8H+ + 1 e Mn2+ + 4H2O
5e
130
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MATTER

3.Multiply each half-reaction by an integer, so that


number of electron lost in one half-reaction equals
the number gained in the other.

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i.

5 x (Fe2+ Fe3+ + 1e)


5Fe2+ 5Fe3+ + 5e

ii.

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O

MATTER

131

1. Add the two half-reactions and simplify where


possible by canceling the species appearing on both
sides of the equation.
i. 5Fe2+ 5Fe3+ + 5e
ii. MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O
___________________________________
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
___________________________________

5 . C h e c k t h e e q u a t io n t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e r e
a r e t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f a t o m s o f e a c h k in d
a n d t h e s a m e t o t a l c h a r g e o n b o t h s id e s .

5Fe
T
=
=
=

2+

+ MnO

+ 8H

o ta l c h a rge re a c ta n t
5 (+ 2 ) + (-1 ) + 8 (+ 1 )
+ 10 - 1 + 8
+17

5Fe

T
=
=
=

3+

+ M n

2+

+ 4 H 2O

o ta l c h a rge p ro d u ct
5 (+ 3 ) + (+ 2 ) + 4 (0 )
+ 1 5 + (+ 2 )
+17

Exercise: In Acidic Solution


C2O42- + MnO4- + H+ CO2 + Mn2+ + H2O
Solution :

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MATTER

134

Balancing Redox Reaction In Basic Solution


1. Firstly balance the equation as in acidic
solution.
1. Then, add OH- to both sides of the equation so
that it can be combined with H+ to form H2O.
1. The number of OH- added is equal to the
number of H+ in the equation.

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MATTER

135

Example: In Basic Solution


Cr(OH)3 + IO3- + OH- CrO32- + I- + H2O

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MATTER

136

Exercise:
1.

H2O2 + MnO4- + H+ O2 + Mn2+ + H2O


(acidic medium)
+ H2O Zn2+ + SO2 + 4OH-

2.

Zn + SO42-

3.

(basic medium)
MnO4- + C2O42- + H+ Mn2+ + CO2 + H2O

4.

(acidic medium)
(basic medium)

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Cl2 ClO3- + Cl-

MATTER

137

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.
A chemical equation can be interpreted in
terms of molecules, moles, mass or even
volume.

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MATTER

138

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

1 molecule of C3H8 reacts with 5 molecules of O2


to produce 3 molecules of CO2 and 4 molecules of
H2O
6.02 x 1023 molecules of C3H8 reacts with 5(6.02 x
1023) molecules of O2 to produce 3(6.02 x 1023)
molecules of CO2 and 4(6.02 x 1023) molecules of
H2O

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

1 mol of C3H8 reacts with 5 moles of O2 to


produce 3 moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O
44.09 g of C3H8 reacts with 160.00 g of O2 to
produce 132.03 g of CO2 and 72.06 g of H2O
5 moles of C3H8 reacts with 25 moles of O2 to
produce 15 moles of CO2 and 20 moles of H2O

At room condition, 25 C and 1 atm pressure;


22.4 dm3 of C3H8 reacts with 5(22.4 dm3) of O2
to produce 3(22.4 dm3) of CO2

Example 1:
How many grams of water are produced in the
oxidation of 0.125 mol of glucose?
C6H12O6(s) +

O2(g)

CO2(g) +

H2O(l)

Solution:
From the balanced equation;
1 mol C6H12O6 produce 6 mol H2O
0.125 mol

C6H12O6 produce

mass of H2O = (0.125 x 6) mol

0 . 1 2 5 m o l 6 mH2oOl
1m ol

x (2.02 + 16.00) g mol-1


= 13.5 g

Example 2:
Ethene, C2H4 burns in excess oxygen to form
carbon dioxide gas and water vapour.
(a) Write a balance equation of the
reaction
(b) If 20.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide gas is
produced in the reaction at STP, how many
grams of ethene are used?

Solution:
(a) C2H4 +
(b)

O2

CO2 +

H 2O

22.4 dm3 is the volume of 1 mol CO2

20.0 dm3 is the volume of

2 0 .0 d m

CO2

1m ol

2 mol CO2 produced by 1 mol C2H4 2 2 . 4 d m


mol CO2 produced by
C2H4

2 0 .0
2 2 .4

2 0 .0

m
o
l

1m ol
2 2 .4

2 m ol

m a s s e th a n e

2 0 .0

2 2 . 4 m o l x [ 2 ( 1 2 . 0 1 ) 4 ( 1 . 0 1 ) ] g m o l -1
2

= 1 2 .5 g

Learning Outcome
At the end of this topic, students should be
able to:
a)
Define the limiting reactant and
percentage yield
b)
Perfome stoichiometric calculations
using mole concept including limiting
reactant and percentage yield.

Limiting Reactant/Reagent
Limiting reactant is the reactant that is
completely consumed in a reaction and limits
the amount of product formed
Excess reactant is the reactant present in
quantity greater than necessary to react with
the quantity of limiting reactant

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MATTER

148

Example:
3H2 + N2 2NH3
If 6 moles of hydrogen is mixed with 6 moles of nitrogen,
how many moles of ammonia will be produced?
Solution:
3 mol H2 reacts with

1 mol N2

6 mol H2 reacts with

6 m ol1m ol
3 m ol
= 2 m ol N

N2 is the excess reactant


H2 is the limiting reactant
limits the amount of products formed
3 mol H2

produce

6 mol H2 produce

2 mol NH3

6 m ol 2 m ol
3 m ol

= 4 m ol NH

or
1 mol N2
6 mol N2

react with 3 mol H2


react with

6 m o l 3 mol
m o l NH3
1m ol
= 18 m ol H

is n o t e n o u g h

lim it in g r e a c t a n t
H 2 lim it s t h e a m o u n t o f p r o d u c t s f o r m e d

3 mol H2

produce

6 mol N2

produce

2 mol NH3
NH3
6 m o l 2 m o mol
l
3 m ol

= 4 mol NH3

Exercise:
Consider the reaction:
2 Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2 AlCl3(s)
A mixture of 2.75 moles of Al and 5.00 moles of Cl2 are
allowed to react.
(a) What is the limiting reactant?
(b) How many moles of AlCl3 are formed?
(c) How many moles of the reactant remain at
the end of the reaction?

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MATTER

154

PERCENTAGE YIELD
The amount of product predicted by a balanced
equation is the theoretical yield
The theoretical yield is never obtain because:
1. The reaction may undergo side reaction
2. Many reaction are reversible
3. There may be impurities in the reactants

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MATTER

155

4. The product formed may react further to


form other product
5. It may be difficult to recover all of the
product from the reaction medium
The amount product actually obtained in a
reaction is the actual yield

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MATTER

156

Percentage yield is the percent of the actual


yield of a product to its theoretical yield

actual yield
% yield
x 100
theoretica l yield

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MATTER

157

Example 1:
Benzene, C6H6 and bromine undergo reaction as follows:
C6H6 + Br2 C6H5Br + HBr
In an experiment, 15.0 g of benzene are mixed with excess
bromine
(a) Calculate the mass of bromobenzene, C6H5Br
that
would be produced in the reaction.
(b) What is the percent yield if only 28.5 g of
bromobenzene obtain from the experiment?

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