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Axis Manufacturing Company (AMC) has total assets of 2,000,000 financed 50% with
debt and 50% with equity capital. The cost of debt capital is 7% pre-tax (4.9% after
tax) and the cost of equity capital is 12%. Net income for AMC can be determined as
follows:
EBIT
200,000
Less: Interest Expense
70,000
Pre-Tax Income
130,000
Income Tax Expense
39,000
Net Income
91,000
What is its residual income? One approach is to compute the cost of equity capital (in
terms of currency), which we term an equity charge, and subtract this from net income,
as follows:
Equity Charge = Equity Capital Cost of Equity Capital in %
Cost of Equity = 1,000,000 12% = 120,000
Net Income
91,000
Equity Charge
120,000
Residual Income
(29,000)
AMC did not earn enough to cover the cost of equity capital. As a result, it has negative
residual income.
RI t
Et rBt 1
P0 B0
0
t
t
(
1
r
)
(
1
r
)
t 1
t 1
In the model,
B0 is the current book value of equity,
Bt is the book value of equity at time t,
RIt is the residual income in future periods,
r is the required rate of return on equity,
Et = net income during period t,
RIt = Et rBt-1.
Perpetuity example
D1
(1 r )
D2
(1 r )
D3
(1 r )
Bt Bt 1 Et Dt
E1 B0 B1 E2 B1 B2 E3 B2 B3
P0
L
1
2
3
(1 r )
(1 r )
(1 r )
RI t
Et rBt 1
P0 B0
B0
t
t
(1
r
)
(1
r
)
t 1
t 1
( ROEt r ) Bt 1
V0 B0
t
(1
r
)
t 1
B.
The book values and residual incomes for the next 3 years are:
Year
Beginning Book Value
Retained earnings (NIDIV)
Ending Book Value
Net income
Less equity charge (r Begin Book Val)
Residual income
1
8.00
2.00
10.00
4.00
0.80
3.20
2
10.00
2.50
12.50
5.00
1.00
4.00
3
12.50
(12.50)
0.0
8.00
1.25
6.75
1
4.00
8.00
50%
40%
2
5.00
10.00
50%
40%
3.20
4.00
3
8.00
12.50
64%
54%
6.75
Inventory
Deferred tax assets and liabilities
Pension plan assets and liabilities
Operating leases
Special purpose entities
Reserves and allowances (for example, bad debts)
Intangible assets
Intangible assets
For specifically identifiable intangibles that can be separated from the entity (e.g., sold),
it is appropriate to include these in the determination of book value of equity. If these
assets are wasting (declining in value over time), they will be amortized over time as an
expense.
Goodwill, on the other hand, requires special consideration, particularly due to recent
changes in accounting for goodwill. Goodwill is generally not recognized as an asset
unless it results from an acquisition (under most international accounting standards,
internally generated goodwill is not recognized on the balance sheet). Goodwill
represents the excess of the purchase price of an acquisition over the value of the net
assets acquired.
Research and development costs provide also must be given careful consideration.
Under U.S. GAAP, R&D is expensed to the income statement directly. Under IAS, some
R&D costs can be capitalized and amortized over time. While R&D may lead to the
existence of an asset in theory, this is reflected in the firms ROE and hence residual
income over time. If a firm engages in unproductive R&D expenditures, these will lower
residual income through the expenditures made. If a firm engages in productive R&D
expenditures they should result in higher revenues to offset the expenditures over time.
On an ongoing basis this should be reflected in ROE forecasts for a mature firm.
Nonrecurring items
An analysts should examine the financial statement notes and other sources for
potential items that may warrant adjustment in determining recurring earnings such as:
Often companies report non-recurring charges as part of earnings or classify non-operating income
(e.g., sale of assets) as part of operating income. These misclassifications can lead over-estimates
and under-estimates of future residual earnings if no adjustments are made. Note that adjustments
to book value are not necessary for these items since non-recurring gains and losses do impact the
value of assets in place. Non-recurring items sometimes result from accounting rules and at other
times result from strategic management decisions.
Unusual items
Extraordinary items
Restructuring charges
Discontinued operations
Accounting changes
Firms have also been criticized recently for the use of cookie jar
reserves where excess losses or expenses are recorded in an earlier
period (for example in conjunction with an acquisition or
restructuring) and then used to reduce expense and increase income
in future periods. The analysts should carefully examine the use of
reserves in an assessment of residual earnings.
International considerations