Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
By
Dr P.K. GARG
Introduction
One of the fundamentals of surveying is the
need to measure distance.
Distances are not necessarily linear,
especially if they occur on the spherical earth.
Example
Example
Distance Measurement
D is ta n c e M e a s u re m e n t
D ire c t
(le n g th m e a s u re m e n t)
e g m e a s u rin g ta p e
In d ire c t
(d is ta n c e m e a s u re m e n t)
G e o m e tric a l
(O p tic a l)
E le c tro n ic
(W a ve P h y s ic s )
8
Measuring Devices
Guessing
Pacing
Knotted bits of rope
The Surveyors Chain
Measuring tapes
Steel measuring bands
Optical rangefinders
Odometers
Tacheometry (stadia or subtense Bar)
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) Devices
Total Station Equipment
RADAR
Laser based equipment
Global Positioning System (GPS)
9
Distance
Traditionally, long distance measurement was
difficult
So it was generally avoided
10
Applications
Measurement of land boundaries
Dimensions, areas are computed using length
measurements
Topographic mapping
Engineering construction
The lay-out of structures
The monitoring of structures
11
Compute angle
PQ
tan
AP
1
E
C
sin(0.5 )
DE
2( AD)
Compute angle
2
2
2
AC
AB
BC
1
cos
2(
AC
)(
AB
)
X
d
Measurement Accuracy
Pacing
Accuracy 1 : 100
Taping
Accuracy 1 : 10,000
16
17
Pacing
Practical measure of distance.
Don't try to pace out one metre with every step.
Walk casually over 100 m counting the number of
steps. Work out the length of a casual step and use
this instead.
Varies with uphill, downhill, and your age.
Low accuracy
No equipment needed
18
Odometer
Measuring wheels
19
20
Gunters Chain
Invented in year 1620
Comprised of 100 links
Subject to wear & tear
But used for centuries
21
Force applied
Hook to the tape
Chain
22
23
24
26
Taping Procedures
27
Accessories
28
Taping Procedures
Ranging rods set up between points A and B
Set zero of tape at A
Unwound tape towards B
A third range rod is ranged in at C
Tape straightened, held tight and read at rod C
Point C marked with a pin
For next bay, tape moved from A and zero set
at C and so on
29
Types of Chains
1. Metric chain
2. Gunters /Surveyor chain
20m - 5mm
3. Engineers chain
30m - 8 mm
4. Revenue chain or cadastral
length 2mm
5. Steel Band or Band chain
Tension 8kg
Temp 20 C
Metric Chain 5,10, 20 and 30m
30m 150 links
Tallies are fixed at every 5m.
Brass rings are provided at very 1m.
Gunters Chain
66 ft long with 100 links
10 square chain = 1 Acre
10 chains = one Furlong
80 chain = one mile
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Engineers chain
100 ft long with 100 links
Tallies are fixed at every 10 links
Revenue chain
33ft 16 links each links
Steel Band
width 12-16 mm, thickness 0.3 - 0.6 mm length 20m,
graduated at 20cm. First & last link subdivided into cm
and mm, very accurate
32
CHAIN
STEEL BAND
Tapes
1. Cloth or linen Tape
2. Metallic and glass fiber plastic Tape
3. Steel Tape
4. Invar Tape
Cloth Tape
width 12 15 mm, varnished length 10, 20, 25 and 30m.
Affected by moisture, pull, twist
Metallic Tape
width 12 15 mm
length 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, & 50 m varnished strip of linen interwoven with thin
copper wires
Glass fiber glass fibers woven
Steel Tape
quite accurate width 6 10mm
length 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, 30, and 50 m. Needs great care
34
Invar Tape
High accuracy, width 6mm alloy of nickel 36% and steel Low
Coeff. of Expansion (1/10th of steel).
ARROWS steel wire 4mm dia. 25 50 mm length
PEGS made of stout timber, 2.5-3 cm square 15cm long
RANGING RODS 2 3 m long, dia 3 cm Painted in bands of
20 cm To have greater visibility >200m square Flag 50 cm
are tied
35
RADAR
Developed during World War II
Deployed soon after for geodetic distance
measurement
36
RADAR
37
MODERN EQUIPMENT
EDM
38
Laser
Distance
Meter
39
40
At first they were complicated, large, heavy, and suited primarily for
long distances
Current EDMs use either infrared (light waves) or microwaves (radio
waves)
Microwaves require transmitters/receivers at both ends
Infrared use a transmitter at one end and a reflecting prism at the
other end.
They come in long (20-50 km), medium (3-20 km), and short range (0.53 km).
They are typically mounted on top of a theodolite, but can be mounted
directly to a tribrach.
41
EDM Classifications
Described by form of electromagnetic energy.
First instruments were primarily microwave (1950)
Present instruments are some form of light, i.e. laser or nearinfrared lights.
EDM Characteristics
Range in Kms
Prisms
Made from cube glass corners
Have the property of reflecting rays back
precisely in the same direction.
They can be tribrach-mounted and
centered with an optical plummet, or they
can be attached to a range pole and held
vertical on a point with the aid of a bullseye level.
44
Basic Principles
The EDM generates a laser that is sent to the
prism and returned
The time-of-flight is determined
Knowing the speed of light, the distance can
be deduced
distance = velocity x time
velocity in a vacuum = 299,792,458m/s, need to correct
this for travel through air!
45
Known
wavelength
Energy pump
46
Principle
A wave is transmitted and the returning wave is measured to find the
distance traveled.
EDM
47
Time determination
Generally done by the phase difference
method
48
EDM Operation
Operation is divided into the following four steps.
1-Setup
EDM Mounted on a tribrach or to a theodolite.
The prism is set up on a tribrach or a prism pole.
The instrument is turned on to ensure it is in good
working order.
The height of the prism and instrument are measured
and recorded.
50
EDM Operation
2-Aim
Aim is done by built in optical devices on the
EDM or by the use of the theodolite telescope.
Fine tune sighting adjustments until an optimal
signal is achieved.
51
EDM Operation
3-Measure
Slope distances are computed by pressing a measure
button.
Compute horizontal and vertical distances as well, but will it
require further input.
Most EDMs have a tracking mode (for layouts)
Hand-held radios help since long distances make
communication difficult. Some models of EDMs come with
communications devices built in.
Some EDMs transmit the result as well so that the surveyor
holding the prism will be immediately aware of the results
(useful when tracking).
52
EDM Operation
4-Record
Manually in field note book.
Automatically recorded by some EDM
devices.
53
Laser Safety
Although the lasers used in Surveying are of
a class, that is eye safe:
NEVER look into a laser
Do not shine a laser at people or animals
Heed the instructions for use
54
56
Mistakes
Natural errors
57
Systematic Errors
All the physical devices based on steel are subject to
systematic errors
Those based on laser or EMS are also subject to
systematic errors
ALL measurements need to be corrected for slope
Temperature
Steel expands and contracts
Tension
Steel also stretches under tension
Sag
Steel hangs in a catenary
58
Incorrect alignment
Correction
59
RANGING
1. By Eye Judgement
2. By Line Ranger
3. Indirect or Reciprocal
RANGING ON SLOPING GROUND
1. Direct Method or stepping
2. Indirect
Slope angle using clinometer
Height diff using Level
60
Accessories
61
Slope
Whilst we consider the Earth to be a plane, it
is not flat.
Our reference plane is flat, so we need to
correct all distances to the horizontal
It applies to tapes, bands and EDM
measurements
62
Slope
63
Slope Correction
64
Solution
Corrected using Pythagorean Theorem
H S V
2
V
H
Or by approximate correction
d2
Ch
2S
65
Slope Correction
All plan distances are always quoted as horizontal
distances L.
Therefore any distance not measured on the horizontal
will need to be corrected for slope.
Slope correction must ALWAYS be considered.
Lm
eslope Lm 1 cos
Angle may be measured by
Theodolites
66
Standardisation
Steel based bands and tapes tend to stretch
over time
The field tape is compared to a standard tape
67
Ls Ln
est Lm
Ln
standardisation
length
(actual tape length)
nominal length
(assumed tape length)
68
Tension/Pull Correction
A tape is a given length when pulled with a certain tension.
If the tension changes then so does the tape length.
Standardisation tension
Tension applied
etension
T Ts Lm
E A
Cross section
Modulus of Elasticity
Area
of tape material
For steel, E = 200,000 N/mm2
69
Temperature Correction
Most tape materials expand and contract with
temperature change, affecting distances.
If a tape has stretched due to heat it will read
shorter than it would at its normal (or standard)
temperature.
etemp Lm (c t )
Length error due to
Temperature
change
Measured
length
Coefficient of
linear expansion
Temperature
change
70
Sag Correction
Due to weight of the tape, it will bend
downward.
This is known as (sag) and can be
determined mathematically.
Weight of tape
per unit length
w L cos
2
24 T
2
ecatenary
Angle of slope
3
m
71
Combined Errors
Actual tape length would be:
72
temperature correction L m c t
29.872 0.0000112 5 20
0.0050m
standardisation correction L m
w 2 Lm cos 2
sag correction 24T 2
3
2
3
2
24120
0.0022m
T - Ts Lm
tension correction
EA
120 50 29.872
200 103 2
0.0052m
Ls Ln
Ln
29.8721 cos 3o 40
0.0611m
73
Digital
Plannimeter
74
Digital Planimeter
It is the most versatile and latest equipment for the
computation of areas speedily.
It can be used to calculate the areas of plane figures by two
rotary encoders which replace the integrating wheels for less
wear and better accuracy.
It can be used both in point mode as well as in stream mode.
In the point mode, the points on the boundary are plotted as
straight lines without tracing
In the stream mode, it is necessary to follow the outline of the
curves.
The linear and areal measurements are displayed in fps or
mks units. If the scale of the map, on which measurements are
carried out, is entered, ground distance or area is directly
displayed. For accurate results, several measurements are
recorded and mean value taken.
75
*Total Stations *
Range limits up to 50 km
Total station
=
Theodolite with built in EDM
+
microprocessor
76
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Both the prism and EDM should be corrected for off-center characteristics.
The prism/instrument constant (about 30 to 40 mm) can be measured by
measuring AC, AB, and BC and then constant = AC-AB-BC
o-------------------------------o-------------o
A
80
Topographical and
alignment surveys
Monitoring
&
Control
Construction Layout
81
Construction
Hydrographic
Boundary
GIS
82
CONSTRUCTION
83
84
Road Accident
85
86
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88
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Some Problems
Total stations/EDMs are dependant on
batteries and electronics. Batteries do not
work for a very-2 long hours of observations.
Total stations are typically heavier that a
transit and tape
90
91
92
Navigational GPS
93
GPS Constellation
94
GPS
95
96
GPS Measurements
97
3D Model Coverage
98
99
100
THANKS
101
Centering
102
Example
offset
chain line
103
Taping: Corrections
Once a line is being measured, it is necessary to convert the measured
length into a horizontal length. Series corrections have to be applied.
Five possible corrections have to be considered. These are
Taping: Corrections
For synthetic tapes, only Erroneous Tape Length
and slope corrections will be applied
The best accuracy that can be achieved is the
order of 1:1000
When using steel tapes, if only Erroneous Tape
Length and slope corrections are considered, the
best possible accuracy that can be obtained in the
range 1:5000 If tension and temperature are added
into consideration, accuracy can be increased to
better than 1:10000 ~ 1: 20000
Sag only applies if tape is supported only at ends 105
107
n p
L
2
incomplete
fractional part
of a cycle
108
Systematic Errors
Microwave
Atmospheric conditions
Temperature
Pressure
Humidity - must have wet bulb and dry bulb temperature.
Multi-path
Reflected signals can give longer distances
Light
Atmospheric conditions
Temperature
Pressure
Prism offset
Point of measurement is generally behind the plumb line.
Today usually standardized as 30mm.
109
Accuracy
Distance is computed by (no. of wavelengths
generated + partial wavelength)/2.
Standard or Random errors are described in
the form of +(Constant + parts per million).
Constant is the accuracy of converting partial
wavelength to a distance.
ppm is a function of the accuracy of the length of
each wavelength, and the number of wavelengths.
110
Basic principle
DISTANCE = SPEED TIME
(3 10 8 m / sec)
(n sec 1 10 9 s)
Expensive
Range up to 100 kms
Can be used in poor weather
Lower accuracy ( 50 mm)
Used for Mine surveying, Hydrographic surveying, Land surveying, civil
engineering construction
111
112
ERRORS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1 in 10,000
1 in 20,000
1 in 10,000
1 in 500
1 in 250
113
Sag
114
F
For steel coefficient of thermal expansion (k)
Correction
CT Lk T TS
Issues
115
Example
Sag curve
117
Tape used
When comparing to a standard tape, the tape used indeed has a length
30 m + l
For every 30m measurement, the small elongated amount should be added for
correction.
118
Standardisation
L = 226.238 m
119
Ce
Example
30.005m 30.000m
53.429m 0.009m
30.000m
Ce
Sag Correction
Correction
w 2L3
CS
24P2
121
Sag or Catenary
The correction is as follows:
2 3
( Mg ) l
L
2
24T
We need the mass/unit length
We need to measure the tension
Best to avoid sag!
122
in2
E 2,000,000kg
cm2
Correction
P PS L
C
P
AE
123
Temperature
Steel expands by about 1mm/C/100m
124
Temperature
L = l + (l . c . t)
for example, if standard temp = 20C (usual)
field temp = 37C (hot!)
and we measure a distance l = 79.984
c=1.15 x 10-5 m/C
then:
125
EDM
Uses either visible or near-visible EMS
Determines the distance by effectively timing
the pulse of spectrum as it travels to the
object and back
We need to know the speed of light
126