Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Technology
March 21, 2015
Dave A. Anas
PERCDC
History
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Base
Emitter
MOSFET
G
S
BJT
B
C
E
Inductor
Diode
Transistor
Number of transistor
per square inch
doubles
approximately
every18 months
Implications
f(t)
Voltage (V)
Time (s)
Properties:
Dynamic range: maxV minV
Frequency: number of cycles in one second
Analog Circuits
It is an electronic subsystem which
operates entirely on analog signals
i(t)
Amplifier
o(t)
o(t) = K i(t)
Digital Circuits
It is an electronic subsystem which
operates entirely on numbers (using, for
instance, binary representation)
a
b
sum
1-bit
Adder
carry
a
0
0
b
0
1
sum carry
0
0
1
0
Positional system
Encoded by two voltage levels
+1.5 V 1 , 0 V 0
+1.5 V
5 101
1
threshold
0V
noise margin
+1.5 V
0V
+1.5 V
Why Digital?
Digital signals are easy and cheap to
store
Digital signals are insensible to noise
Boolean algebra can be used to
represent, manipulate, minimize logic
functions
Digital signal processing is easier and
relatively less expensive than analog
signal processing
13
Sampling
1011
0100
0101
0110
0001
0010
1001
1100
0100
0011
0010
0011
Result
1100
1011
1010
1001
1000
0111
0110
0101
0100
0011
0010
0001
0000
Quantization
-5V
-10V
-15V
-20V
-25V
-30V
ab
a+b
b
sum
1-bit
Adder
carry
a
0
0
b
0
1
1
1
0
1
sum carry
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
TAKE NOTE!
-Analog signals are representation of physical
quantities
-Digital signals are less sensible to noise than
analog signals
-Digital signals can represent analog signals
with arbitrary precision (at the expense of
digital circuit cost)
-Boolean algebra is a powerful mathematical
tool for manipulating digital circuits
Common Application
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Cellular Technology
Frequency Up-conversion
Transmitter
Receiver
Microelectronics Technology
>>>Semiconductor Processing<<<
>>> Semiconductor
Characterization<<<
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
What is Microelectronics?
- Microelectronics is a subfield
of electronics.
- Microelectronics is the study
and manufacture of electronic
components which are very
small.
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Very Complex
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Different Approache
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Simple example :
MESFET
Metal-Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
CMOS Inverter
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Silicon Technology
Process Involved
Crystal (substrate) growth
Oxidation
Diffusion & implantation
Material growth (metal evaporation,
sputtering, vapor deposition, epitaxy)
Lithography & etching
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Substrate Formation
Different Methods of Substrate
Formation
Czochralski
Majority of the wafers
Bridgman
Easy (melting & cooling)
Low quality
Drip melting,
strain annealing and
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
others
Dave A. Anas
Czochralski growth
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Ingot By Czochralski
Method
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Czochralski Growth
CHARACTERISTICS
Typically used for Silicon but also used for
Single crystal semiconductors (Si, Ge, GaAs)
Metals (Pd, Pt, Ag, Au)
Salts etc
Steps Involved
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Processes Involved
Oxidation Process
Oxidation Techniques
Thermal Oxidation
Rapid Thermal Oxidation
Thermal Oxidation Techniques
Wet Oxidation
Si (solid) + H20
Dry Oxidation
Si (solid) + O2 (gas)
SiO2(solid)
SiO2
Oxidation
Main advantages of SiGe compared to Si:
A. Mobility
B. Power Consumption
Oxidation
Thermal Oxidation is performed in furnaces at
temperatures between 800 and 1200C
Many wafers on the boat (a quartz rack) at the
same time
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Oxidation
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Types of resists:
Positive : PR pattern is same as mask. On exposure to
light, light degrades the polymers resulting in the
photoresist being more soluble in developers. The PR
can be removed in inexpensive solvents such as
acetone.
Negative : PR pattern
is the inverse
Microelectronics
And IC of the mask. On
Technology
exposure to light, light
polymerizes the rubbers in the
Dave A. Anas
Spinner
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Develop
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Photolithography systems
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Used when
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Instertital
Vacancy
Interstitialcy
Kick-out
Dissociative
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Disadvantages
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Fabrication of a CMOS
Inverter
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Fabrication of a CMOS
Inverter
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Fabrication of a CMOS
Inverter
Epitaxial growth
MBE
MOCVD
CBE
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Disadvantages
E-beam
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Sputtering
Sputtering
Advantages
Sputtering
Disadvantages
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Chemical Vapor
Deposition
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
the substrate is
placed inside a
reactor to which a
number of gases
are supplied.
a chemical
reaction takes
place between the
source gases.
The product of
that reaction is a
solid material with
condenses on all
surfaces inside the
reactor.
4 Categories of CVD
1. Atmospheric Pressure (APCVD)
Advantages: High deposition rates, simple,
high throughput
Disadvantages: Poor uniformity, purity is
less than LPCVD
Thick oxides
2. Low Pressure (LPCVD, 0.2 20 Torr)
Poly-silicon deposition, dielectric layer and
doped dielectric deposition.
Advantages: Excellent uniformity, purity
Disadvantages: Lower (but reasonable)
deposition rates than APCVD
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
4 Categories of CVD
3. Metal Organic (MOCVD) alternative for
MBE
Advantages.: Highly flexible
(semiconductors, metals, dielectrics)
Disadvantages: Highly toxic, very expensive
source material, environmental disposal
costs are high.
4. Plasma Enhanced (PECVD)
dielectric coating such as silicon nitride
Advantages.: Uses low temperatures
necessary for rear end processing.
Disadvantages: Plasma damage typically
Microelectronics And IC
results
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Epitaxy
We can grow crystalline semiconductors
by raising the temperature to allow
more surface migration and by using a
crystalline substrate
growth!= deposition
The lattice constant of the epitaxially
grown layer needs to be close to the
lattice constant of the substrate wafer.
Otherwise the bonds can not stretch far
enough and dislocations will result.
Advantages : Very high quality,
extremely clean samples,crystallinity,
very long mean
free path
Microelectronics
And IC (few hundred
Technology
meters), preciseDave
atomic
layer deposition
A. Anas
Epitaxy
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Vacuum
A vacuum is a volume of space that is
essentially empty of matter such that its
gaseous pressure is much less than standard
atmospheric pressure.
A perfect vacuum with a gaseous pressure of
absolute zero is a philosophical concept that is
never observed in practice
quantum theory predicts that no volume of
space can be perfectly empty in this way.
The quality of a vacuum is measured in relation
to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum.
The residual gas pressure is the primary
indicator of quality, and is most commonly
measured in units called torr
The average distance between collisions (mean
free path)
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Vacuum
Torr
Torr
Atmospheric
Low vacuum
Medium vacuum
High vacuum
760 Torr
760 to 25 Torr
25 to 110-3 Torr
110-3 to 110-9
110-9 to 110-12
<110-12 Torr
<310-17 Torr
0 Torr
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Vacuum pumps
Rough & medium vacuum
Piston pumps (particle problems)
Rotary vane pumps (cheap)
Dry pumps
Transfer pumps
Rotary pump (mechanical)
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Vacuum pumps
Turbomolecular pumps
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Fabrication of a CMOS
inverter
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Fabrication of a CMOS
inverter
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Fabrication of a CMOS
inverter
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics Design
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Bardeen,Shockley,andBrattainat
BellLabsBrattainandBardeen
inventedthebipolartransistorin1947.
Thefirstgermaniumbipolar
transistor.Roughly50yearslater,
electronicsaccountfor10%(4trillion
dollars)oftheworldGDP.
Electronics Milestones
1874 Braun invents the solid-state
rectifier.
1906 DeForest invents triode
vacuum tube.
1907-1927
First radio circuits developed
from diodes and triodes.
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device
patent filed.
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell
Laboratories invent bipolar
transistors.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor
production at Texas
Instruments.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and
Shockley receive Nobel prize.
Dave A. Anas
Evolution of Electronic
Devices
Vacuum
Tubes
Discrete
Transistors
SSIandMSI
Integrated
Circuits
VLSI
SurfaceMount
Circuits
Microelectronics
Proliferation
The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
World transistor production has more than
doubled every year for the past twenty
years.
Every year, more transistors are produced
than in all previous years combined.
Approximately 1018 transistors were
produced in a recent year.
Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the
world.
*Source: Gordon Moores Plenary address at the 2003
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
International Solid
State
Circuits Conference.
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Memorychipdensity
versustime.
Microprocessorcomplexity
versustime.
Signal Types
Analog signals take
on continuous values
- typically current or
voltage.
Digital signals
appear at discrete
levels. Usually we
use binary signals
which utilize only
two levels.
One level is referred
to as logical 1 and
logical 0 is assigned
to the other level.
Digital-to-Analog (D/A)
Conversion
VFS = Full ScaleVoltage
LSB
FS
V 2 V
Analog-to-Digital (A/D)
Conversion
Chap1110
Exercises
Chap1111
Exercises
A 10-bit D/A converter has VFS =
5.12 V. What is the output voltage
for a binary input code of
(1100010001)? What is VLSB?
What is the size of the MSB?
3.925 V; 5 mV; 2.56 V
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap1112
Exercises
Chap1113
Exercises
An 8-bit A/D converter has VFS
= 5 V. What is the digital output
code word for an input of 1.2 V?
What is the voltage range
corresponding to 1 LSB of the
converter?
00111101; 19.5 mV
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap1114
Notational Conventions
Total signal = DC bias + time varying
signal
vT VDC vsig
iT I DC isig
Resistance and conductance - R and G
with same subscripts will denote
reciprocal quantities.
Most
1
1
G xform
will
and
g used
convenient
be
Rx
r within
expressions.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
and
v 2 ii R2
ApplyingKVL(Kirchhoffsvoltage
law)totheloop,
v i v1 v 2 ii (R1 R2 )
and
ii
vi
R1 R2
Combiningtheseyieldsthebasicvoltagedivisionformula:
R1
v1 v i
R1 R2
R2
v2 vi
R1 R2
8 k
v1 10 V
_____ V
8 k 2 k
2 k
v2 10 V
____ V
8 k 2 k
Microelectronics And IC
Microelectronic
Circuit Design, 4E
Technology
McGraw-Hill
Dave A. Anas
Chap1119
where
vi
i1
R1
vi
and i2
R2
Combiningandsolvingforvs,
R1R2
v i ii
ii
ii R1 || R2
1
1
R1 R2
R1 R2
Combiningtheseyieldsthebasiccurrentdivisionformula:
R2
i1 ii
R1 R2
and
R1
i2 ii
R1 R2
3 k
i1 5 ma
____ mA
2 k 3 k
2 k
i2 5 ma
_____ mA
2 k 3 k
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Thvenin
Norton
Microelectronics And IC
Microelectronic
Circuit Design, 4E
Technology
McGraw-Hill
Dave A. Anas
Thvenin Equivalent
Circuits
The Thvenin-equivalent resistance is the
resistance measured across points A and B
"looking back" into the circuit.
It is important to first replace all voltage- and
current-sources with their internal
resistances.
For an ideal voltage source, this means
replace the voltage source with a short circuit.
For an ideal current source, this means
replace the current source with an open
circuit.
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
v th 0.718v i
Testvoltagevxhasbeenaddedtothe
previouscircuit.Applyingvxandsolving
forixallowsustofindtheThvenin
resistanceasvx/ix.
Rth 282
Norton Equivalent
Circuits
Calculate the output current, IAB,
with a short circuit as the load.
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Ashortcircuithasbeenapplied
acrosstheoutput.TheNorton
currentisthecurrentflowing
throughtheshortcircuitatthe
output.
50 1
vi
in
vi
(2.55mS)v i
20k
392
CheckofResults:
Notethatvth=inRthandthiscanbeusedtocheckthecalculations:
inRth=(2.55mS)vi(282)=0.719vi,accuratewithinroundofferror.
Whilethetwocircuitsareidenticalintermsofvoltagesandcurrentsat
theoutputterminals,thereisonedifferencebetweenthetwo
circuits.
Frequency Spectrum of
Electronic Signals
Non repetitive signals have continuous
spectra often occupying a broad range of
frequencies
Fourier theory tells us that repetitive
signals are composed of a set of
sinusoidal signals with distinct amplitude,
frequency, and phase.
The set of sinusoidal signals is known as a
Fourier series.
The frequency spectrum of a signal is the
amplitude and phase components of the
signal versus frequency.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Audible sounds
20 Hz - 20 KHz
Baseband TV
0 - 4.5 MHz
FM Radio
88 - 108 MHz
Television (Channels 2-6)
54 - 88 MHz
Television (Channels 7-13)
174 - 216 MHz
Maritime and Govt. Comm.
216 - 450 MHz
Cell phones and other wireless1710 - 2690
MHz
Satellite TV
3.7 - 4.2 GHz
Wireless Devices
5.0 - 5.5 GHz
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Fourier Series
2VO
1
1
3
5
0=2/T(rad/s)isthefundamentalradianfrequency
f0=1/T(Hz)isthefundamentalfrequencyofthesignal.
2f0,3f0,and4f0arecalledthesecond,third,andfourthharmonicfrequencies
Amplifier Basics
Analog signals are typically manipulated
with linear amplifiers.
Although signals may be comprised of
several different components, linearity
permits us to use the superposition
principle.
Superposition allows us to calculate the
effect of each of the different components
of a signal individually and then add the
individual contributions to the output.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Amplifier Linearity
v i Vi sin( i t )
Givenaninputsinusoid:
Foralinearamplifier,theoutputisat
thesamefrequency,butdifferent
amplitudeandphase.
Inphasornotation:
Amplifiergainis:
v o Vo sin( i t )
v i Vi
v o Vo( )
v o Vo( ) Vo
A
vi
Vi
Vi
Amplifier Input/Output
Response
vi=sin2000tV
Av=5
Note:negative
gainisequivalent
to180degreesof
phaseshift.
v i ii R1 i2 R2 v o 0
vi v
ii i2
R1
vi
ii
R1
Fromassumption2,weknowthati=0.
Assumption1requiresv=v+=0.
vo
R2
Av
vi
R1
Combiningtheseequationsyields:
R1
R2
R2
v i v o
R1 R2
FromAssumption2,i2=ii:
Yielding:
vo
R2
Av
vi
R1
Amplifier Frequency
Response
Amplifierscanbedesignedtoselectivelyamplifyspecific
rangesoffrequencies.Suchanamplifierisknownasafilter.
Severalfiltertypesareshownbelow:
LowPass
HighPass
BandPass
BandReject
AllPass
Circuit Element
Variations
All electronic components have
manufacturing tolerances.
Resistors can be purchased with 10%, 5%,
and
1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often 10%.)
Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances
such as +20%/-50%.
Power supply voltages typically vary from 1%
to 10%.
Tolerance Modeling
For symmetrical parameter
variations
Pnom(1 - ) P Pnom(1 + )
For example, a 10K resistor with
5% percent tolerance could take
on the following range of values:
10k(1 - 0.05) R 10k(1 +
0.05)
9,500 MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Microelectronics
R 10,500
And IC
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Nominalvoltagesolution:
nom
R
VOnom VInom nom 1 nom
R1 R2
18k
15V
5V
18k 36k
Worst-Case Analysis
Example
NominalSourcecurrent:
VInom
15V
nom
II nom
278 A
R1 R2nom 18k 36k
RewriteVOtohelpusdeterminehowtofindtheworstcasevalues.
R1
VI
VO VI
R2
R1 R2
1
R1
max
O
VOismaximizedformaxVI,R1andminR2.
VOisminimizedforminVI,R1,andmaxR2.
15V (1.1)
5.87V
36K(0.95)
1
18K(1.05)
min
O
15V (0.95)
4.20V
36K(1.05)
1
18K(0.95)
Worst-Case Analysis
Example
Worstcasesourcecurrents:
IImax
VImax
15V (1.1)
min
322 A
min
R1 R2
18k(0.95) 36k(0.95)
min
I
VImin
15V (0.9)
max
238 A
max
R1 R2
18k(1.05) 36k(1.05)
Temperature Coefficients
Most circuit parameters are
temperature sensitive.
P = Pnom(1+ 1T+ 2T2)
where T = T-Tnom
Pnom is defined at Tnom
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
T he input and output voltages of an
amplifier are expressed as vi = 0.001
sin(2000t) V and vo = 5 cos(2000t
+ 25) V in which vi and vo are
specified in volts when t is seconds.
What are Vi, VO, and the voltage gain
of the amplifier?
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
T he input and output voltages of an
amplifier are expressed as vi = 0.001
sin(2000t) V and vo = 5 cos(2000t
+ 25) V in which vi and vo are
specified in volts when t is seconds.
What are Vi, VO, and the voltage gain
of the amplifier?
0.001< 0; 5< 65; 5000<65
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
The amplifier has a gain of 5 with
R1 = 10 kohms. What is the value
of R2?
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
The amplifier has a gain of 5 with
R1 = 10 kohms. What is the value
of R2?
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
(a)The band-pass amplifier in has fL = 1.5
kHz, fH = 2.5 kHz, and A = 10. If the input
voltage is given by vs = [0.5 sin(2000t)
+ sin(4000t) + 1.5 sin(6000t)] V. What
is the amplitude of theoutput voltage of
the amplifier?
(b)Suppose the same input signal is applied
to the low-pass amplifier which has A = 6
and fH = 1.5 kHz. What is the amplitude
of the output voltage?
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
(a)The band-pass amplifier in has fL = 1.5 kHz,
fH = 2.5 kHz, and A = 10. If the input voltage
is given by vs = [0.5 sin(2000t) +
sin(4000t) + 1.5 sin(6000t)] V. What is the
amplitude of theoutput voltage of the
amplifier?
(b)Suppose the same input signal is applied to
the low-pass amplifier which has A = 6 and fH
= 1.5 kHz. What is the amplitude of the
output voltage?
Answers: 10.0; 3.00 V
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
A 39-k resistor has a 10 percent
tolerance. What is the range of
resistor values corresponding to
this resistor? Repeat for a 3.6-k
resistor with a 1 percent tolerance.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
A 39-k resistor has a 10 percent
tolerance. What is the range of
resistor values corresponding to
this resistor? Repeat for a 3.6-k
resistor with a 1 percent tolerance.
Answers: 35.1 R 42.9 k; 3.56 R
3.64 k.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
A diffused resistor has a nominal
value of 10 k at a temperature of 25C
and has a TCR of +1000 ppm/C. Find
its resistance at 40 and 75C. For T =
55C and T = +85C?
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
A diffused resistor has a nominal value of 10
k at a temperature of 25C and has a TCR of
+1000 ppm/C. Find its resistance at 40 and
75C. For T = 55C and T = +85C?
10.15 k
10.5 k
9.20 k
10.6 k
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
JackKilby
AndyGrove,RobertNoyce,and
GordonMoorewithIntel8080layout.
Semiconductordie
Electricalcontacts
Solid-State Electronic
Materials
Electronic materials fall into three
categories:
Insulators
Resistivity () > 105 -cm
Semiconductors
10-3 < < 105 -cm
Conductors
< 10-3 -cm
Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductor
Bandgap
EnergyEG(eV)
Carbon(diamond)
5.47
Silicon
1.12
Germanium
0.66
Tin
0.082
Galliumarsenide
1.42
Galliumnitride
3.49
Indiumphosphide
1.35
Boronnitride
7.50
Siliconcarbide
3.26
Cadmiumselenide
1.70
Siliconcrystal
latticeunitcell.
Cornerofdiamond
latticeshowing
fournearest
neighborbonding.
Viewofcrystal
latticealonga
crystallographicaxis.
Nearabsolutezero,allbondsarecomplete.
EachSiatomcontributesoneelectronto
eachofthefourbondpairs.
Increasingtemperatureaddsenergytothe
systemandbreaksbondsinthelattice,
generatingelectronholepairs.
Intrinsic Carrier
Concentration
n i2
EG
6
BT exp
cm
kT
3
Intrinsiccarrierdensity(cm3)
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Electron-hole
concentrations
A vacancy is left when a covalent bond is
broken.
The vacancy is called a hole.
A hole moves when the vacancy is filled by
an electron from a nearby broken bond
(hole current).
Hole density is represented by p.
For intrinsic silicon, n = ni = p.
The product of electron and hole
concentrations is pn = ni2.
The pn product above holds when a
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
semiconductor
isTechnology
in thermal equilibrium
Chap2173
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Drift Current
Electrical resistivity and its reciprocal, conductivity
, characterize current flow in a material when an
electric field is applied.
Charged particles move or drift under the influence
of the applied field.
The resulting current is called drift current.
Drift current density is
j = Qv (C/cm3)(cm/s) = A/cm2
j
= current density, (Coulomb charge moving
through a unit area)
Q = charge density, (Charge in a unit volume)
v
= velocity of charge in an electric field.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Mobility
At low fields, carrier drift velocity v (cm/s) is
proportional to electric field E (V/cm). The
constant of proportionality is the mobility, :
vn = - n E
and
vp = pE,
where
vn and vp = electron and hole velocity (cm/s),
n and p = electron and hole mobility (cm 2/Vs)
Hole mobility is less than electron since hole
current is the result of multiple covalent bond
disruptions, while electrons can move freely about
the crystal.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2175
Velocity Saturation
At high fields,
carrier velocity
saturates and
places upper
limits on the
speed of solidstate devices.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2176
Intrinsic Silicon
Resistivity
Given drift current and mobility, we can
calculate resistivity:
jndrift = Qnvn = (-qn)(- nE) = qn nE A/cm2
jpdrift = Qpvp = (qp)( pE) = qp pE
A/cm2
E
V /cm
cm
= 1/
(cm)
j
A /cm
drift
T
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2177
= 1/ = 3.38 x 105 cm
Semiconductor Doping
Doping is the process of adding
very small well controlled
amounts of impurities into a
semiconductor.
Doping enables the control of
the resistivity and other
properties over a wide range of
values.
For silicon, impurities are from
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
Chap2180
columns IIIMcGrawHill
and
V
of
the
periodic
Dave A. Anas
Acceptor Impurities in
Silicon
Holeispropagatingthroughthesilicon.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2184
n-type Material
Substituting p = ni2/n into q(ND +
p - NA - n) = 0 yields n2 - (ND NA)n - ni2 = 0.
Solving
(N D for
N A ) n (N D N A ) 2 4n i2
n
n i2
andp
n
Chap2185
p-type Material
Similar to the approach used with n-type
material we find the following equations:
(N A N D ) (N A N D ) 2 4n i2
n i2
p
andn
2
p
We find the majority carrier concentration
from charge neutrality and find the minority
carrier conc. from the thermal equilibrium
relationship.
For (NA - ND) >> 2ni, p (NA - ND) .
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2187
Diffusion Current
In practical semiconductors, it is quite
useful to create carrier concentration
gradients by varying the dopant
concentration and/or the dopant type across
a region of semiconductor.
This gives rise to a diffusion current
resulting from the natural tendency of
carriers to move from high concentration
regions to low concentration regions.
Diffusion current is analogous to a gas
moving across a room to evenly distribute
itself across the volume.
Microelectronics And IC
MicroelectronicCircuitDesign,4E
Technology
McGrawHill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2189
Diffusion Current
j pdiff
jndiff ( q) Dn qDn
x
x
A/cm 2
Diffusioncurrentdensityequations
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Diffusioncurrentsinthe
presenceofaconcentration
gradient.
Diffusion Current
The proportionality constants D p and Dn
are the hole and electron diffusivities
with units cm2/s. Diffusivity and mobility
are related by Einsteinss relationship:
Dn kT D p
VT Thermalvoltage
n
q
p
Dn n VT , D p p VT
temperature.
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Gauss's law
In physics, Gauss's law, also
known as Gauss's flux theorem,
is a law relating the distribution
of electric charge to the
resulting electric field.
The electric flux through any
closed surface is proportional to
the enclosed electric charge.
Microelectronics And IC
Microelectronic
Circuit Design, 4E
Technology
McGraw-Hill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2192
Maxwell's equations
Gauss's law
Gauss's law for magnetism
Faraday's law of induction
Ampre's law with Maxwell's corr
ection
Microelectronics And IC
Microelectronic
Circuit Design, 4E
Technology
McGraw-Hill
Dave A. Anas
Chap2193
Semiconductorenergy
bandmodel.ECandEV
areenergylevelsatthe
edgeoftheconduction
andvalencebands.
Electronparticipatingin
acovalentbondisina
lowerenergystateinthe
valenceband.This
diagramrepresents0K.
Thermalenergybreaks
covalentbondsand
movestheelectronsup
intotheconduction
band.
Semiconductorwithdonororntype
dopants.Thedonoratomshavefree
electronswithenergyED.SinceEDis
closetoEC,(about0.045eVfor
phosphorous),itiseasyforelectrons
inanntypematerialtomoveupinto
theconductionband.
Semiconductorwithacceptororp
typedopants.Thedonoratomshave
unfilledcovalentbondswithenergy
stateEA.SinceEAisclosetoEV,
(about0.044eVforboron),itiseasy
forelectronsinthevalencebandto
moveupintotheacceptorsitesand
completecovalentbondpairs.
Acompensatedsemiconductorhasbothntype
andptypedopants.IfND>NA,therearemore
NDdonorlevels.Thedonorelectronsfillthe
acceptorsites.TheremainingNDNAelectrons
areavailableforpromotiontotheconduction
band.
Topviewofanintegratedpndiode.
Integrated Circuit
Fabrication
(a)Firstmaskexposure,(b)postexposureanddevelopmentofphotoresist,(c)
afterSiO2etch,and(d)afterimplantation/diffusionofacceptordopant.
Integrated Circuit
Fabrication
(e)Exposureofcontactopeningmask,(f)afterresistdevelopmentandetchingofcontact
openings,(g)exposureofmetalmask,and(h)Afteretchingofaluminumandresistremoval.
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
203
Radix or Base
Decimal
10
Binary
Octal
Hexadecimal
16
ositional Notation
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
204
Positional Notation
Positional notation
is a system where the value of a
number is defined not only by the
symbol but by the symbols
position
ositional Notation
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
205
Positional Notation
Positional notation
Msd lsd
ABCDE.vwxyz
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
206
(MSD and
MSD
LSD)
The MSD in a number is the digit that
has the greatest effect on that number.
LSD
The LSD in a number is the digit that has
the least effect on that number.
conversion
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
207
Number System
Conversion
Base 10 to Base N
Base N to Base 10
Base N to Base M
Special Conversion (Binary,
Hexadecimal, Octal)
ase 10-base n
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
208
Base
to
Base
N
Whole10
Part: DIVIDE by radix!!
Fractional Part: MULTIPLY by
radix!!
ase n base 10
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
209
Base
to Base 10
PlaceNValue!
ase n-base m
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
210
Base N to Base
M
Base N
Binary-octal
Base 10
Base M
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
211
Binary
to 3Octal
Group by
bits!
Octal-binary
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
212
to Binary
Octal
Represent
each octal digit into 3
bits!
Binary - hex
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
213
Binary to
Group by 4 bits!
Hexadecimal
Hex-binary
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
214
Hexadecimal to
Binary
Represent each octal digit into 4
bits!
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
215
Hex
Binary
Binary
Hex
Octal
athematical opr
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
216
Mathematical
Operations
Addition
Convert to decimal, ADD, convert back
to its number system.
Subtraction
Use complements.
omplements
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
217
Complemen
ts
1. Radix-minus-One Complement
2. True Complement
Base-1
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
218
Radix-Minus-One
Complement
Diminished Radix Complement
(Base-1) - complement
true
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
219
True
Complement
codes
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
220
Code
s
Weighted Code
Weight is assigned to each bit
representing a number.
Example: BCD, 8-4-2-1 code
Unweighted Code
Weight is not assigned to each bit
Example: Excess-3, Biquinary
oolean algebra
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
221
Boolean
Algebra
By George Boole (1854)
An algebraic structure in which variables
can only have two possible values: 1 or
0
Operators: Complement, OR and AND
Used primarily by Design Engineers.
theorems
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
222
Theorems of Boolean
Algebra
laws
A+A=A
A+A=1
A+0=A
A+1=1
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1
AA=A
AA=0
A0=0
A1=A
00=0
01=0
10=0
11=1
Microelectronics
And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
A=A
0=1
1=0
223
Truth table
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
224
Truth Table
Shows all the possible input
combinations and its
corresponding output.
The number of input
combination should be 2b.
Where b is the number of inputs.
xample/+-logic
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
225
Truth Table
oduct/sum term
x y z
000
Output
001
Output
010
Output
011
Output
100
Output
101
Output
110
Output
226
Karnaugh
Map (K-Map)
Graphical-Tabular
method of
simplifying logical expressions.
12 13
15
14
11
10
condiitions
Groups:
Power of two
Symmetrical
Large as possible
Few as possible
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
227
ogic gates
x y z
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
F
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
F=xyz+xyz+xyz
F=x(y+z)
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
228
Logic
Gates
Smallest building block of
digital circuitry.
A circuit that follows Boolean
Logic.
Gate sample
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
229
Gate sample
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
230
Logic Gates
niversal gates
Inverter (NOT)
OR
AND
NOR
NAND
XOR
XNOR
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
231
Universal Gates
NOR
NAND
ogic ckt/xnor x or
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
232
Logic Circuits
Combinational Logic
Output is dependent on present input
only.
Has logic gates only.
Sequential Logic
Output is dependent on present input and
present output.
Has logic gates and memory elements.
ombinational
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
233
sequential
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
234
sequential
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
235
Flip-flops
Non-clocked
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
236
Flip-Flops
registers
RS
T
D
JK
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
237
Registers
A register is a temporary storage
device.
They are used to store data, memory
addresses, and operation codes.
Registers are normally referred to by
the number of stages they contain or
by the number of bits they will store.
Used in the transfer of data to and
from input and output devices.
arallel Register
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
238
Shift Register
A register in which the contents
may be shifted one or more
places to the left or right.
used for serial-to-parallel
conversion and for scaling
binary numbers
memories
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
239
LOGIC FAMILIES
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
241
Common Characteristics
of the Same Logic Family
Supply voltage range, speed of
response, power dissipation, input
and output logic levels, current
sourcing and sinking capability,
fan-out, noise margin, etc.
Consequence: choosing digital ICs
from the same logic family
guarantees that these ICs are
compatible with respect to each
other and that the system as a
whole performs
Microelectronics the
And IC intended logic
Technology
242
function. Dave
A. Anas
244
DL Example
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
245
RTL Example
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
246
DTL Example
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
247
TTL Subfamilies
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
248
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
249
Characteristic
Parameters 1
250
Characteristic
Parameters 2
251
Characteristic
Parameters 3
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
252
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
253
Characteristic
Parameters 4
This is the
maximum voltage level applied
at the input that is recognized
as a legal LOW level for the
specified family.
HIGH-level output voltage, VOH. This is
the minimum voltage on the
output pin of a logic function
when the input conditions
Microelectronics
And IC
establish
logic HIGH
at the
Technology
A. Anas
output for Dave
the
specified family.
254
Characteristic
Parameters
5
This
is the minimum voltage on
the output pin of a logic
function when the input
conditions establish logic
HIGH at the output for the
specified family.
HIGH-level output voltage, VOH.
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
255
Characteristic
Parameters 6
Supply current, ICC.
256
Characteristic
Parameters 7
Propagation delay tp.
257
Characteristic
Parameters 8
This is the
maximum frequency at which the clock
input of a flip-flop can be driven through
its required sequence while maintaining
stable transitions of logic level at the
output in accordance with the input
conditions and the product specification.
Power dissipation. The power dissipation
parameter for a logic family is specified
in terms of power consumption per gate
and is the product of supply voltage VCC
and supplyMicroelectronics
current ICC.
And IC
Maximum clock frequency, fmax.
Technology
Dave A. Anas
258
Characteristic
Parameters
9
259
Noise MARGIN
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
260
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
261
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
262
Exercise
A certain TTL gate has the
following values for its logic
levels: VOH = 3.6 V, VOL =0.4 V, VI
H = 2.0 V, VI L = 0.8 V. What are
the noise margins for this TTL
gate?
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
A certain TTL gate has the
following values for its logic
levels: VOH = 3.6 V, VOL =0.4 V, VI
H = 2.0 V, VI L = 0.8 V. What are
the noise margins for this TTL
gate?
Answers: NMH = 1.6 V; NML = 0.4
V
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
A certain TTL gate has the following values for its
logic levels: VOH = 3.6 V, VOL =0.4 V, VI H = 2.0 V, VI L
= 0.8 V. What are the noise margins for this TTL gate?
NML The noise margin associated with a low input level is
defined by
NML = VI L VOL
NMH The noise margin associated with a high input level is
defined by
NMH = VOH VI H
Answers: NMH = 1.6 V; NML = 0.4 V
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
Suppose the waveforms in Fig.
6.5 are those of an ECL gate with
VL = 2.6 V and VH = 0.6 V, and
t1 = 100 ns, t2 = 105 ns, t3 = 150
ns, and t4 = 153 ns. What are the
values of V10%, V90%, V50%, tr ,
and tf ?
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas
Exercise
Suppose the waveforms in Fig. 6.5 are
those of an ECL gate with VL = 2.6 V and VH
= 0.6 V, and t1 = 100 ns, t2 = 105 ns, t3 =
150 ns, and t4 = 153 ns. What are the values
of V10%, V90%, V50%, tr , and tf ?
Exercise
Suppose the waveforms in Fig. 6.5 are those of an ECL
gate with VL = 2.6 V and VH = 0.6 V, and t1 = 100 ns,
t2 = 105 ns, t3 = 150 ns, and t4 = 153 ns. What are the
values of V10%, V90%, V50%, tr , and tf ?
V10% = VL + 0.1V
V90% = VL + 0.9V = VH 0.1V
V = VH VL
V50% = VH + VL
Answers: 2.4 V; 0.8 V; 1.6 V; 3 ns; 5 ns
Microelectronics And IC
Technology
Dave A. Anas