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11
The
Cardiovascular
System:
Blood
Functions of Blood
Composition of Blood
Whole Blood ~ 7% of body weight (kilograms)
Adult male: 5 to 6 liters; Adult female: 4 to 5 liters
Plasma (55%):
Fluid consisting of:
water
dissolved plasma proteins
Electrolytes, hormones, wastes
Figure
11-1
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Figure 11-1
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Platelets (Thrombocytes):
Cell fragments involved in clotting
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Plasma Proteins
7% of plasma volume; all produced in the liver
Albumins (60%)
Transport substances such as fatty acids, thyroid hormones, and
steroid hormones; maintains osmotic pressure of cells
Globulins (35%)
Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins
Transport globulins (small molecules): hormone-binding
proteins, metalloproteins, apolipoproteins (lipoproteins), and
steroid-binding proteins ~ alpha, beta, and gamma types
Fibrinogen (4%)
Molecules that form clots and produce long, insoluble strands of
fibrin
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Plasma Proteins
Serum
Liquid part of a blood sample:
In which dissolved fibrinogen has converted to solid fibrin
Plasma Gases
Oxygen needed for cellular respiration
Carbon dioxide produced by cell
respiration
Nitrogen use unknown
Plasma Nutrients
Amino acids
Monosaccharides
Stored as glycogen in liver or converted to fat
Lipoproteins
Nonprotein Nitrogenous
Substances (Plasma Wastes)
Plasma Electrolytes
Maintain osmotic pressure and pH
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride
Bicarbonate
Phosphate
Sulfate
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Abundance of RBCs
Red blood cell count: the number of RBCs in 1
microliter of whole blood
Male: 4.56.3 million
Female: 4.25.5 million
Structure of RBCs
Small and highly specialized discs
Lack nuclei; live approximately 120 days
Thin in middle and thicker at edge
Importance of RBC shape and size:
High surface-to-volume ratio:
Quickly absorbs and releases oxygen
Figure 192d
Figure 11-2
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Abnormal Hemoglobin
Figure 11-3
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Hemoglobinuria:
Hemoglobin breakdown products in urine due to excess hemolysis
in bloodstream
Hematuria:
Whole red blood cells in urine due to kidney or tissue damage
Figure 11-4
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RBC Formation
RBC Production
Erythropoiesis:
In feuses in yolk sac, liver, spleen
Occurs only in myeloid tissue (red bone marrow) in adults
Stem cells mature to become RBCs
Hemocytoblasts
Stem cells in myeloid tissue divide to produce:
Myeloid stem cells: become RBCs, some WBCs
Lymphoid stem cells: become lymphocytes
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Figure 11-5
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Erythropoiesis
Figure 11-6
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Destruction of RBCs
Liver and spleen macrophages destroy
worn RBCs
Hemoglobin is broken into globin and
heme
Iron in Hb is recycled
Heme is broken into biliverdin then
bilirubin them bile
Blood Typing
If the RBCs antigen (donor) and plasma antibody (recipient are the
same, the serious condition of hemolysis (bursting) of RBCs will
occur
Blood Typing
Blood types
Are genetically determined
Four types:
Type A blood = antigen A on RBCs
Type B blood = antigen B on RBCs
Type AB blood = both antigen A and B on RBCs (universal
recipient)
Type O = Neither A nor B antigen on RBCs (universal donor)
Blood Typing
Antibodies in plasma
Shortly after birth, we spontaneously develop
antibodies against RBCs antigens that are not our
own
Persons w/ Type A blood develop Anti-B antibodies
Persons with Type B blood develop Anti-A antibodies
Persons w/ Type AB blood do not develop either Anti-A
or Anti-B antibodies
Persons w/ Type O blood develop both Anti-A and AntiB antibodies
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Blood Typing
The Rh Factor - also called D antigen
Either Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh):
Only sensitized Rh blood has anti-Rh antibodies
Erythroblastosis fetalis
Rh-negative mother becomes pregnant w/ Rh-positive fetus
During birth, babys blood enters mothers circulation and she produces antiRh antibodies
Mother conceives second Rh-positive fetus
Mothers anti-Rh antibodies can now pass through the placenta and enter
fetus circulation
The fetus RBCs hemolyze resulting in this fatal condition
Figure 11-7a
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Figure 11-7b
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Basophils
Monocytes
Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Types of WBCs
Figure 11-8
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Types of WBCs
Figure 11-8
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Types of WBCs
Neutrophils light purple when stained
Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes
Lobed nucleus with 2 to 5 sections
Types of WBCs
Eosinophils stain deep red; two-lobed nucleus
Also called acidophils
2% to 4% of circulating WBCs
Attack large parasites
Excrete toxic compounds:
Nitric oxide
Cytotoxic enzymes
Types of WBCs
Basophils stain deep blue
Are less than 1% of circulating WBCs
Are small
Accumulate in damaged tissue
May leave bloodstream and develop into mast cells
(antibodies attach and cause mast cell to burst, releasing allergy
mediators)
Types of WBCs
Monocytes live several weeks to months
2% to 8% of circulating WBCs
Are large and spherical
Enter peripheral tissues and become macrophages
Engulf large particles and pathogens
Secrete substances that attract immune system cells
and fibrocytes to injured area
Increased during typhoid fever, malaria, and mono
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Types of WBCs
Lymphocytes live several months to years
20% to 30% of circulating WBCs
Are larger than RBCs
Migrate in and out of blood (diapedesis)
Mostly in connective tissues and lymphoid organs
Are part of the bodys specific defense system
T-cells directly attack microorganisms and tumors; produce antibodies
that act against specific foreign substances
B-cells increased during TB, whooping cough, viral infections, tissue
rejection reactions, and tumors
Differential Counts
Detects changes in WBC populations
Infections, inflammation, and allergic reactions
Leukocytosis = WBC over 10000, e.g., appendicitis
Leukopenia = WBC less than 5000; e.g., typhoid fever, flu, measels,
chicken pox, AIDS, polio
Leukemia = abnormal production of immature leukocytes
WBC Formation
All blood cells originate from hemocytoblasts
Which produce myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells
Figure 11-5
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Platelets
Cell fragments involved in human clotting
system
Nonmammalian vertebrates have thrombocytes
(nucleated cells)
Platelets
Platelet Counts
130,000-360,000 per microliter
Thrombocytopenia:
Abnormally low platelet count
Thrombocytosis:
Abnormally high platelet count
Phases of Hemostasis
Hemostasis is the cessation of bleeding
Consists of three phases
Vascular phase (Blood vessel spasm)
Platelet phase (Platelet plug formation)
Coagulation phase
Phases of Hemostasis
The Vascular Phase
A cut triggers vascular spasm that lasts 30 minutes
Three steps of the vascular phase:
Endothelial cells contract:
expose basal lamina to bloodstream
Phases of Hemostasis
The Platelet Phase
Begins within 15 seconds after injury
Platelet adhesion (attachment):
To sticky endothelial surfaces
To basal laminae
To exposed collagen fibers
Figure 1911b
Phases of Hemostasis
The Coagulation Phase
Begins 30 seconds or more after the injury
Blood clotting (coagulation):
Cascade reactions:
chain reactions of enzymes and proenzymes
form three pathways
convert circulating fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin
Figure 1912a
Figure 11-10
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Figure 11-9
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Hemostasis
Three Coagulation Pathways
Extrinsic pathway:
Begins in the vessel wall
Outside bloodstream
Intrinsic pathway:
Begins with circulating proenzymes
Within bloodstream
Common pathway:
Where intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converge
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Takes 30 to 60 minutes