Psychology 4051

Visual
Functions

Stereopsis
True depth perception. The ability to see in 3D.
Does not include monocular cues or binocular
kinetic cues.

Interposition

Relative Size

Linear Perspective

Stereopsis
Occurs due to the
differing positions of the
eyes.
Retinal disparity: An
image will fall on
noncorresponding retinal
areas.

Stereopsis
Horopter: an imaginary
arc upon which objects
produce no disparity.
Objects along the
horopter do not produce
disparity.
Those in front produce
crossed disparity.
Those in back produce
uncrossed disparity.

Stereopsis

Panums Fusional Area:

Images from an object
within the area can be
fused.
Those outside the area
produce diplopia.

Stereopsis
Fusion is accomplished by disparity selective
cells.
They respond to specific amounts of disparity
and produce the sensation of depth.

Measurement of Stereopsis
Stereoacuity: the minimum amount of disparity
one can use to detect depth.
Measured in seconds of arc (arc sec).
Adult stereoacuity is less than 40 arc sec.

Measured with random dot stereograms. Arrays

of dots that appears to have a patternless
texture.

Measurement of Stereopsis
A portion of the stereogram contains two
patterns that are displaced laterally.
When viewed with polarized glasses, the lateral
displacement creates artificial retinal disparity.
i.e., a slightly different image is seen by each
eye.
Creates the sensation of depth.

Measurement in Young Children

Measurement in preschoolers can be conducted
using the Randot Preschool Stereoacuity Test.
Consists of three books that contain random dot
stereograms.
Each stereogram is in the form of a shape that is
familiar to children.
Hands, hearts, ducks, elephants, etc.

Shapes cover a broad range of retinal disparities

800 to 40 arc sec

Measurement in Young Children

Infants and toddlers can be tested with Randot
Stereo Smile Cards.
Modeled on the Teller Acuity Cards

The cards are completely covered with a random

dot array.
When viewed through polarized glasses, one
side of the card possesses a happy face of
crossed disparity.
480 to 120 arc sec

Measurement in Young Children

The cards are presented following FPL.
Very difficult to measure stereoacuity in infants
and toddlers.
The target is not very salient.

Development
Stereopsis emerges at 3.5 to 6 months of age
and shows rapid improvement.
Then rises slowly to adult levels.
Measures 100 arc sec at 3 years, 50 arc sec at 5
years, and 40 arc sec at 7 years.

Development
May be correlated with the segregation of ocular
dominance columns.
At birth, neurons from both eyes converge onto
single neurons in layer IV in the visual cortex.
Later, there is a segregation of these
connections, and connections separate into left
eye and right eye columns.
i.e., ocular dominance columns.

Development
Convergence of connections occurs at the next
level.
Animal studies show that stereopsis occurs at
the same time this segregation into ocular
dominance columns occurs.

Refractive Error
The degree of myopia, hyperopia, or
astigmatism.
Measured in diopters.
The refractive power of a lens.
The reciprocal of focal length.
The focal length of the eye is approximately 17
mm.

Refractive Error

The required refractive power of the eye is

60 D.

Refractive Error
Emmetropia: No refractive error.
Ametropia: Presence of refractive error.
Spherical Refractive Error: Due to a
mismatch between the focusing power of
the eye and the length of the eye.
Reported relative to the 60 D norm.

Refractive Power
Myopia: the eye is
too long to match its
focal power. The
image is focused in
front of the retina.
Corrected with a
concave lens.

Refractive Error
Focal length is longer than 17 mm
Required refractive power will be less than 60
D.
E.g. 57 D.

Corrected with a concave lens with 3D

power.

Refractive Power
Hyperyopia: the eye
is too short to match
its focal power. The
image is focused
behind the retina.
Corrected with a
convex lens.

Refractive Error
Focal length is shorter than 17 mm
Required refractive power will more than 60 D.
E.g. 63 D.

Corrected with a convex lens with +3 D power.

Refractive Error
Cylindrical Refractive Error
Astigmatism: a distortion in the shape of
the cornea.
The cornea is curved more sharply along
one axis than along the others.
As a result, the image is distorted.
Can be corrected by using a lens that
counteracts the distortion

Measuring Refractive Error

Cycloplegic Retinoscopy: Beam of
light is shone through the subjects
optical system.
Ophthalmologist looks through the site
hole and observes the reflected light
and a shadow.
A mirror inside the retinoscope is
moved in various direction.
Movement of the shadow is observed

Measurement in Infants and Toddlers

Usually conducted using cycloplegia which
prevents accommodation.
Can be difficult in infants and toddlers.
Can be conducted without cycloplegia, but
requires expertise.
They can be assessed using a photoscreener
(photorefractor).

Measurement in Infants and Toddlers

Camera and a flash
source that take a
photograph of the flashed
light as it returns from its
passage through the
optical system.
Based on the position
and amount of crescentshaped light reflected
from the subjects pupil,
refractive error can be
determined.

Measurement in Infants and Toddlers

Can also be measured
using an automatic
refractor or autorefractor.
An infrared beam is
shone into the eye.
The reflected beams
return to the autorefractor
and determines the
extent to which the beam
is out of focus.

Measurement in Infants and Toddlers

Both techniques are fast, objective, and
require little expertise.
Neither is as accurate as cycloplegic
retinoscopy.

Development
We are born farsighted (hyperopic).
This error is reduced through
emmetropization as the eye grows.
1 month = 2.2 D (Mayer et al., 2001)
1 year = 1.57 D
2 years = 1.19 D
3 years = 1.00 D
4 years = 1.13 D

Development
The length of the eye increases rapidly at first
during the "infantile" high-growth period and then
more slowly during the "juvenile" slow-elongation
period.
This moves the retina away from the cornea so
that, eventually, the length matches the focal
power, producing emmetropia.
The growth of the eye appears to be controlled
by the amount of blur of the image it receives.